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<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
<meta name="generator" content="Docutils 0.16: http://docutils.sourceforge.net/" />
<title>Building Hybrid Systems with Boost.Python</title>
<meta name="author" content="David Abrahams" />
<meta name="organization" content="Boost Consulting" />
<meta name="date" content="2003-05-14" />
<meta name="author" content="Ralf W. Grosse-Kunstleve" />
<meta name="copyright" content="Copyright David Abrahams and Ralf W. Grosse-Kunstleve 2003. All rights reserved" />
<--- Cannot embed stylesheet '/rst.css': No such file or directory. --->
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<body>
<div class="document" id="building-hybrid-systems-with-boost-python">
<h1 class="title">Building Hybrid Systems with Boost.Python</h1>
<table class="docinfo" frame="void" rules="none">
<col class="docinfo-name" />
<col class="docinfo-content" />
<tbody valign="top">
<tr><th class="docinfo-name">Author:</th>
<td>David Abrahams</td></tr>
<tr><th class="docinfo-name">Contact:</th>
<td><a class="first last reference external" href="mailto:dave&#64;boost-consulting.com">dave&#64;boost-consulting.com</a></td></tr>
<tr><th class="docinfo-name">Organization:</th>
<td><a class="first last reference external" href="http://www.boost-consulting.com">Boost Consulting</a></td></tr>
<tr><th class="docinfo-name">Date:</th>
<td>2003-05-14</td></tr>
<tr><th class="docinfo-name">Author:</th>
<td>Ralf W. Grosse-Kunstleve</td></tr>
<tr><th class="docinfo-name">Copyright:</th>
<td>Copyright David Abrahams and Ralf W. Grosse-Kunstleve 2003. All rights reserved</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div class="contents topic" id="table-of-contents">
<p class="topic-title">Table of Contents</p>
<ul class="simple">
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#abstract" id="id5">Abstract</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction" id="id6">Introduction</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#boost-python-design-goals" id="id7">Boost.Python Design Goals</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#hello-boost-python-world" id="id8">Hello Boost.Python World</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#library-overview" id="id9">Library Overview</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exposing-classes" id="id10">Exposing Classes</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#constructors" id="id11">Constructors</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#data-members-and-properties" id="id12">Data Members and Properties</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#operator-overloading" id="id13">Operator Overloading</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#inheritance" id="id14">Inheritance</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#virtual-functions" id="id15">Virtual Functions</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#deeper-reflection-on-the-horizon" id="id16">Deeper Reflection on the Horizon?</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#serialization" id="id17">Serialization</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#object-interface" id="id18">Object interface</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#thinking-hybrid" id="id19">Thinking hybrid</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#development-history" id="id20">Development history</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#conclusions" id="id21">Conclusions</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#citations" id="id22">Citations</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#footnotes" id="id23">Footnotes</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="section" id="abstract">
<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id5">Abstract</a></h1>
<p>Boost.Python is an open source C++ library which provides a concise
IDL-like interface for binding C++ classes and functions to
Python. Leveraging the full power of C++ compile-time introspection
and of recently developed metaprogramming techniques, this is achieved
entirely in pure C++, without introducing a new syntax.
Boost.Python's rich set of features and high-level interface make it
possible to engineer packages from the ground up as hybrid systems,
giving programmers easy and coherent access to both the efficient
compile-time polymorphism of C++ and the extremely convenient run-time
polymorphism of Python.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="introduction">
<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id6">Introduction</a></h1>
<p>Python and C++ are in many ways as different as two languages could
be: while C++ is usually compiled to machine-code, Python is
interpreted. Python's dynamic type system is often cited as the
foundation of its flexibility, while in C++ static typing is the
cornerstone of its efficiency. C++ has an intricate and difficult
compile-time meta-language, while in Python, practically everything
happens at runtime.</p>
<p>Yet for many programmers, these very differences mean that Python and
C++ complement one another perfectly. Performance bottlenecks in
Python programs can be rewritten in C++ for maximal speed, and
authors of powerful C++ libraries choose Python as a middleware
language for its flexible system integration capabilities.
Furthermore, the surface differences mask some strong similarities:</p>
<ul class="simple">
<li>'C'-family control structures (if, while, for...)</li>
<li>Support for object-orientation, functional programming, and generic
programming (these are both <em>multi-paradigm</em> programming languages.)</li>
<li>Comprehensive operator overloading facilities, recognizing the
importance of syntactic variability for readability and
expressivity.</li>
<li>High-level concepts such as collections and iterators.</li>
<li>High-level encapsulation facilities (C++: namespaces, Python: modules)
to support the design of re-usable libraries.</li>
<li>Exception-handling for effective management of error conditions.</li>
<li>C++ idioms in common use, such as handle/body classes and
reference-counted smart pointers mirror Python reference semantics.</li>
</ul>
<p>Given Python's rich 'C' interoperability API, it should in principle
be possible to expose C++ type and function interfaces to Python with
an analogous interface to their C++ counterparts. However, the
facilities provided by Python alone for integration with C++ are
relatively meager. Compared to C++ and Python, 'C' has only very
rudimentary abstraction facilities, and support for exception-handling
is completely missing. 'C' extension module writers are required to
manually manage Python reference counts, which is both annoyingly
tedious and extremely error-prone. Traditional extension modules also
tend to contain a great deal of boilerplate code repetition which
makes them difficult to maintain, especially when wrapping an evolving
API.</p>
<p>These limitations have lead to the development of a variety of wrapping
systems. <a class="reference external" href="http://www.swig.org/">SWIG</a> is probably the most popular package for the
integration of C/C++ and Python. A more recent development is <a class="reference external" href="http://www.riverbankcomputing.co.uk/sip/index.php">SIP</a>,
which was specifically designed for interfacing Python with the <a class="reference external" href="http://www.trolltech.com/">Qt</a>
graphical user interface library. Both SWIG and SIP introduce their
own specialized languages for customizing inter-language bindings.
This has certain advantages, but having to deal with three different
languages (Python, C/C++ and the interface language) also introduces
practical and mental difficulties. The <a class="reference external" href="http://cxx.sourceforge.net/">CXX</a> package demonstrates an
interesting alternative. It shows that at least some parts of
Python's 'C' API can be wrapped and presented through a much more
user-friendly C++ interface. However, unlike SWIG and SIP, CXX does
not include support for wrapping C++ classes as new Python types.</p>
<p>The features and goals of <a class="reference external" href="http://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc">Boost.Python</a> overlap significantly with
many of these other systems. That said, Boost.Python attempts to
maximize convenience and flexibility without introducing a separate
wrapping language. Instead, it presents the user with a high-level
C++ interface for wrapping C++ classes and functions, managing much of
the complexity behind-the-scenes with static metaprogramming.
Boost.Python also goes beyond the scope of earlier systems by
providing:</p>
<ul class="simple">
<li>Support for C++ virtual functions that can be overridden in Python.</li>
<li>Comprehensive lifetime management facilities for low-level C++
pointers and references.</li>
<li>Support for organizing extensions as Python packages,
with a central registry for inter-language type conversions.</li>
<li>A safe and convenient mechanism for tying into Python's powerful
serialization engine (pickle).</li>
<li>Coherence with the rules for handling C++ lvalues and rvalues that
can only come from a deep understanding of both the Python and C++
type systems.</li>
</ul>
<p>The key insight that sparked the development of Boost.Python is that
much of the boilerplate code in traditional extension modules could be
eliminated using C++ compile-time introspection. Each argument of a
wrapped C++ function must be extracted from a Python object using a
procedure that depends on the argument type. Similarly the function's
return type determines how the return value will be converted from C++
to Python. Of course argument and return types are part of each
function's type, and this is exactly the source from which
Boost.Python deduces most of the information required.</p>
<p>This approach leads to <em>user guided wrapping</em>: as much information is
extracted directly from the source code to be wrapped as is possible
within the framework of pure C++, and some additional information is
supplied explicitly by the user. Mostly the guidance is mechanical
and little real intervention is required. Because the interface
specification is written in the same full-featured language as the
code being exposed, the user has unprecedented power available when
she does need to take control.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="boost-python-design-goals">
<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id7">Boost.Python Design Goals</a></h1>
<p>The primary goal of Boost.Python is to allow users to expose C++
classes and functions to Python using nothing more than a C++
compiler. In broad strokes, the user experience should be one of
directly manipulating C++ objects from Python.</p>
<p>However, it's also important not to translate all interfaces <em>too</em>
literally: the idioms of each language must be respected. For
example, though C++ and Python both have an iterator concept, they are
expressed very differently. Boost.Python has to be able to bridge the
interface gap.</p>
<p>It must be possible to insulate Python users from crashes resulting
from trivial misuses of C++ interfaces, such as accessing
already-deleted objects. By the same token the library should
insulate C++ users from low-level Python 'C' API, replacing
error-prone 'C' interfaces like manual reference-count management and
raw <tt class="docutils literal">PyObject</tt> pointers with more-robust alternatives.</p>
<p>Support for component-based development is crucial, so that C++ types
exposed in one extension module can be passed to functions exposed in
another without loss of crucial information like C++ inheritance
relationships.</p>
<p>Finally, all wrapping must be <em>non-intrusive</em>, without modifying or
even seeing the original C++ source code. Existing C++ libraries have
to be wrappable by third parties who only have access to header files
and binaries.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="hello-boost-python-world">
<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id8">Hello Boost.Python World</a></h1>
<p>And now for a preview of Boost.Python, and how it improves on the raw
facilities offered by Python. Here's a function we might want to
expose:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
char const* greet(unsigned x)
{
static char const* const msgs[] = { &quot;hello&quot;, &quot;Boost.Python&quot;, &quot;world!&quot; };
if (x &gt; 2)
throw std::range_error(&quot;greet: index out of range&quot;);
return msgs[x];
}
</pre>
<p>To wrap this function in standard C++ using the Python 'C' API, we'd
need something like this:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
extern &quot;C&quot; // all Python interactions use 'C' linkage and calling convention
{
// Wrapper to handle argument/result conversion and checking
PyObject* greet_wrap(PyObject* args, PyObject * keywords)
{
int x;
if (PyArg_ParseTuple(args, &quot;i&quot;, &amp;x)) // extract/check arguments
{
char const* result = greet(x); // invoke wrapped function
return PyString_FromString(result); // convert result to Python
}
return 0; // error occurred
}
// Table of wrapped functions to be exposed by the module
static PyMethodDef methods[] = {
{ &quot;greet&quot;, greet_wrap, METH_VARARGS, &quot;return one of 3 parts of a greeting&quot; }
, { NULL, NULL, 0, NULL } // sentinel
};
// module initialization function
DL_EXPORT init_hello()
{
(void) Py_InitModule(&quot;hello&quot;, methods); // add the methods to the module
}
}
</pre>
<p>Now here's the wrapping code we'd use to expose it with Boost.Python:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
#include &lt;boost/python.hpp&gt;
using namespace boost::python;
BOOST_PYTHON_MODULE(hello)
{
def(&quot;greet&quot;, greet, &quot;return one of 3 parts of a greeting&quot;);
}
</pre>
<p>and here it is in action:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
&gt;&gt;&gt; import hello
&gt;&gt;&gt; for x in range(3):
... print hello.greet(x)
...
hello
Boost.Python
world!
</pre>
<p>Aside from the fact that the 'C' API version is much more verbose,
it's worth noting a few things that it doesn't handle correctly:</p>
<ul class="simple">
<li>The original function accepts an unsigned integer, and the Python
'C' API only gives us a way of extracting signed integers. The
Boost.Python version will raise a Python exception if we try to pass
a negative number to <tt class="docutils literal">hello.greet</tt>, but the other one will proceed
to do whatever the C++ implementation does when converting an
negative integer to unsigned (usually wrapping to some very large
number), and pass the incorrect translation on to the wrapped
function.</li>
<li>That brings us to the second problem: if the C++ <tt class="docutils literal">greet()</tt>
function is called with a number greater than 2, it will throw an
exception. Typically, if a C++ exception propagates across the
boundary with code generated by a 'C' compiler, it will cause a
crash. As you can see in the first version, there's no C++
scaffolding there to prevent this from happening. Functions wrapped
by Boost.Python automatically include an exception-handling layer
which protects Python users by translating unhandled C++ exceptions
into a corresponding Python exception.</li>
<li>A slightly more-subtle limitation is that the argument conversion
used in the Python 'C' API case can only get that integer <tt class="docutils literal">x</tt> in
<em>one way</em>. PyArg_ParseTuple can't convert Python <tt class="docutils literal">long</tt> objects
(arbitrary-precision integers) which happen to fit in an <tt class="docutils literal">unsigned
int</tt> but not in a <tt class="docutils literal">signed long</tt>, nor will it ever handle a
wrapped C++ class with a user-defined implicit <tt class="docutils literal">operator unsigned
int()</tt> conversion. Boost.Python's dynamic type conversion
registry allows users to add arbitrary conversion methods.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="section" id="library-overview">
<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id9">Library Overview</a></h1>
<p>This section outlines some of the library's major features. Except as
neccessary to avoid confusion, details of library implementation are
omitted.</p>
<div class="section" id="exposing-classes">
<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id10">Exposing Classes</a></h2>
<p>C++ classes and structs are exposed with a similarly-terse interface.
Given:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
struct World
{
void set(std::string msg) { this-&gt;msg = msg; }
std::string greet() { return msg; }
std::string msg;
};
</pre>
<p>The following code will expose it in our extension module:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
#include &lt;boost/python.hpp&gt;
BOOST_PYTHON_MODULE(hello)
{
class_&lt;World&gt;(&quot;World&quot;)
.def(&quot;greet&quot;, &amp;World::greet)
.def(&quot;set&quot;, &amp;World::set)
;
}
</pre>
<p>Although this code has a certain pythonic familiarity, people
sometimes find the syntax bit confusing because it doesn't look like
most of the C++ code they're used to. All the same, this is just
standard C++. Because of their flexible syntax and operator
overloading, C++ and Python are great for defining domain-specific
(sub)languages
(DSLs), and that's what we've done in Boost.Python. To break it down:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
class_&lt;World&gt;(&quot;World&quot;)
</pre>
<p>constructs an unnamed object of type <tt class="docutils literal">class_&lt;World&gt;</tt> and passes
<tt class="docutils literal">&quot;World&quot;</tt> to its constructor. This creates a new-style Python class
called <tt class="docutils literal">World</tt> in the extension module, and associates it with the
C++ type <tt class="docutils literal">World</tt> in the Boost.Python type conversion registry. We
might have also written:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
class_&lt;World&gt; w(&quot;World&quot;);
</pre>
<p>but that would've been more verbose, since we'd have to name <tt class="docutils literal">w</tt>
again to invoke its <tt class="docutils literal">def()</tt> member function:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
w.def(&quot;greet&quot;, &amp;World::greet)
</pre>
<p>There's nothing special about the location of the dot for member
access in the original example: C++ allows any amount of whitespace on
either side of a token, and placing the dot at the beginning of each
line allows us to chain as many successive calls to member functions
as we like with a uniform syntax. The other key fact that allows
chaining is that <tt class="docutils literal">class_&lt;&gt;</tt> member functions all return a reference
to <tt class="docutils literal">*this</tt>.</p>
<p>So the example is equivalent to:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
class_&lt;World&gt; w(&quot;World&quot;);
w.def(&quot;greet&quot;, &amp;World::greet);
w.def(&quot;set&quot;, &amp;World::set);
</pre>
<p>It's occasionally useful to be able to break down the components of a
Boost.Python class wrapper in this way, but the rest of this article
will stick to the terse syntax.</p>
<p>For completeness, here's the wrapped class in use:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
&gt;&gt;&gt; import hello
&gt;&gt;&gt; planet = hello.World()
&gt;&gt;&gt; planet.set('howdy')
&gt;&gt;&gt; planet.greet()
'howdy'
</pre>
<div class="section" id="constructors">
<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id11">Constructors</a></h3>
<p>Since our <tt class="docutils literal">World</tt> class is just a plain <tt class="docutils literal">struct</tt>, it has an
implicit no-argument (nullary) constructor. Boost.Python exposes the
nullary constructor by default, which is why we were able to write:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
&gt;&gt;&gt; planet = hello.World()
</pre>
<p>However, well-designed classes in any language may require constructor
arguments in order to establish their invariants. Unlike Python,
where <tt class="docutils literal">__init__</tt> is just a specially-named method, In C++
constructors cannot be handled like ordinary member functions. In
particular, we can't take their address: <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">&amp;World::World</span></tt> is an
error. The library provides a different interface for specifying
constructors. Given:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
struct World
{
World(std::string msg); // added constructor
...
</pre>
<p>we can modify our wrapping code as follows:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
class_&lt;World&gt;(&quot;World&quot;, init&lt;std::string&gt;())
...
</pre>
<p>of course, a C++ class may have additional constructors, and we can
expose those as well by passing more instances of <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">init&lt;...&gt;</span></tt> to
<tt class="docutils literal">def()</tt>:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
class_&lt;World&gt;(&quot;World&quot;, init&lt;std::string&gt;())
.def(init&lt;double, double&gt;())
...
</pre>
<p>Boost.Python allows wrapped functions, member functions, and
constructors to be overloaded to mirror C++ overloading.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="data-members-and-properties">
<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id12">Data Members and Properties</a></h3>
<p>Any publicly-accessible data members in a C++ class can be easily
exposed as either <tt class="docutils literal">readonly</tt> or <tt class="docutils literal">readwrite</tt> attributes:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
class_&lt;World&gt;(&quot;World&quot;, init&lt;std::string&gt;())
.def_readonly(&quot;msg&quot;, &amp;World::msg)
...
</pre>
<p>and can be used directly in Python:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
&gt;&gt;&gt; planet = hello.World('howdy')
&gt;&gt;&gt; planet.msg
'howdy'
</pre>
<p>This does <em>not</em> result in adding attributes to the <tt class="docutils literal">World</tt> instance
<tt class="docutils literal">__dict__</tt>, which can result in substantial memory savings when
wrapping large data structures. In fact, no instance <tt class="docutils literal">__dict__</tt>
will be created at all unless attributes are explicitly added from
Python. Boost.Python owes this capability to the new Python 2.2 type
system, in particular the descriptor interface and <tt class="docutils literal">property</tt> type.</p>
<p>In C++, publicly-accessible data members are considered a sign of poor
design because they break encapsulation, and style guides usually
dictate the use of &quot;getter&quot; and &quot;setter&quot; functions instead. In
Python, however, <tt class="docutils literal">__getattr__</tt>, <tt class="docutils literal">__setattr__</tt>, and since 2.2,
<tt class="docutils literal">property</tt> mean that attribute access is just one more
well-encapsulated syntactic tool at the programmer's disposal.
Boost.Python bridges this idiomatic gap by making Python <tt class="docutils literal">property</tt>
creation directly available to users. If <tt class="docutils literal">msg</tt> were private, we
could still expose it as attribute in Python as follows:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
class_&lt;World&gt;(&quot;World&quot;, init&lt;std::string&gt;())
.add_property(&quot;msg&quot;, &amp;World::greet, &amp;World::set)
...
</pre>
<p>The example above mirrors the familiar usage of properties in Python
2.2+:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
&gt;&gt;&gt; class World(object):
... __init__(self, msg):
... self.__msg = msg
... def greet(self):
... return self.__msg
... def set(self, msg):
... self.__msg = msg
... msg = property(greet, set)
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="operator-overloading">
<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id13">Operator Overloading</a></h3>
<p>The ability to write arithmetic operators for user-defined types has
been a major factor in the success of both languages for numerical
computation, and the success of packages like <a class="reference external" href="http://www.pfdubois.com/numpy/">NumPy</a> attests to the
power of exposing operators in extension modules. Boost.Python
provides a concise mechanism for wrapping operator overloads. The
example below shows a fragment from a wrapper for the Boost rational
number library:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
class_&lt;rational&lt;int&gt; &gt;(&quot;rational_int&quot;)
.def(init&lt;int, int&gt;()) // constructor, e.g. rational_int(3,4)
.def(&quot;numerator&quot;, &amp;rational&lt;int&gt;::numerator)
.def(&quot;denominator&quot;, &amp;rational&lt;int&gt;::denominator)
.def(-self) // __neg__ (unary minus)
.def(self + self) // __add__ (homogeneous)
.def(self * self) // __mul__
.def(self + int()) // __add__ (heterogenous)
.def(int() + self) // __radd__
...
</pre>
<p>The magic is performed using a simplified application of &quot;expression
templates&quot; <a class="citation-reference" href="#veld1995" id="id1">[VELD1995]</a>, a technique originally developed for
optimization of high-performance matrix algebra expressions. The
essence is that instead of performing the computation immediately,
operators are overloaded to construct a type <em>representing</em> the
computation. In matrix algebra, dramatic optimizations are often
available when the structure of an entire expression can be taken into
account, rather than evaluating each operation &quot;greedily&quot;.
Boost.Python uses the same technique to build an appropriate Python
method object based on expressions involving <tt class="docutils literal">self</tt>.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="inheritance">
<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id14">Inheritance</a></h3>
<p>C++ inheritance relationships can be represented to Boost.Python by adding
an optional <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">bases&lt;...&gt;</span></tt> argument to the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">class_&lt;...&gt;</span></tt> template
parameter list as follows:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
class_&lt;Derived, bases&lt;Base1,Base2&gt; &gt;(&quot;Derived&quot;)
...
</pre>
<p>This has two effects:</p>
<ol class="arabic simple">
<li>When the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">class_&lt;...&gt;</span></tt> is created, Python type objects
corresponding to <tt class="docutils literal">Base1</tt> and <tt class="docutils literal">Base2</tt> are looked up in
Boost.Python's registry, and are used as bases for the new Python
<tt class="docutils literal">Derived</tt> type object, so methods exposed for the Python <tt class="docutils literal">Base1</tt>
and <tt class="docutils literal">Base2</tt> types are automatically members of the <tt class="docutils literal">Derived</tt>
type. Because the registry is global, this works correctly even if
<tt class="docutils literal">Derived</tt> is exposed in a different module from either of its
bases.</li>
<li>C++ conversions from <tt class="docutils literal">Derived</tt> to its bases are added to the
Boost.Python registry. Thus wrapped C++ methods expecting (a
pointer or reference to) an object of either base type can be
called with an object wrapping a <tt class="docutils literal">Derived</tt> instance. Wrapped
member functions of class <tt class="docutils literal">T</tt> are treated as though they have an
implicit first argument of <tt class="docutils literal">T&amp;</tt>, so these conversions are
neccessary to allow the base class methods to be called for derived
objects.</li>
</ol>
<p>Of course it's possible to derive new Python classes from wrapped C++
class instances. Because Boost.Python uses the new-style class
system, that works very much as for the Python built-in types. There
is one significant detail in which it differs: the built-in types
generally establish their invariants in their <tt class="docutils literal">__new__</tt> function, so
that derived classes do not need to call <tt class="docutils literal">__init__</tt> on the base
class before invoking its methods :</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
&gt;&gt;&gt; class L(list):
... def __init__(self):
... pass
...
&gt;&gt;&gt; L().reverse()
&gt;&gt;&gt;
</pre>
<p>Because C++ object construction is a one-step operation, C++ instance
data cannot be constructed until the arguments are available, in the
<tt class="docutils literal">__init__</tt> function:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
&gt;&gt;&gt; class D(SomeBoostPythonClass):
... def __init__(self):
... pass
...
&gt;&gt;&gt; D().some_boost_python_method()
Traceback (most recent call last):
File &quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;, line 1, in ?
TypeError: bad argument type for built-in operation
</pre>
<p>This happened because Boost.Python couldn't find instance data of type
<tt class="docutils literal">SomeBoostPythonClass</tt> within the <tt class="docutils literal">D</tt> instance; <tt class="docutils literal">D</tt>'s <tt class="docutils literal">__init__</tt>
function masked construction of the base class. It could be corrected
by either removing <tt class="docutils literal">D</tt>'s <tt class="docutils literal">__init__</tt> function or having it call
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">SomeBoostPythonClass.__init__(...)</span></tt> explicitly.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="virtual-functions">
<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id15">Virtual Functions</a></h3>
<p>Deriving new types in Python from extension classes is not very
interesting unless they can be used polymorphically from C++. In
other words, Python method implementations should appear to override
the implementation of C++ virtual functions when called <em>through base
class pointers/references from C++</em>. Since the only way to alter the
behavior of a virtual function is to override it in a derived class,
the user must build a special derived class to dispatch a polymorphic
class' virtual functions:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
//
// interface to wrap:
//
class Base
{
public:
virtual int f(std::string x) { return 42; }
virtual ~Base();
};
int calls_f(Base const&amp; b, std::string x) { return b.f(x); }
//
// Wrapping Code
//
// Dispatcher class
struct BaseWrap : Base
{
// Store a pointer to the Python object
BaseWrap(PyObject* self_) : self(self_) {}
PyObject* self;
// Default implementation, for when f is not overridden
int f_default(std::string x) { return this-&gt;Base::f(x); }
// Dispatch implementation
int f(std::string x) { return call_method&lt;int&gt;(self, &quot;f&quot;, x); }
};
...
def(&quot;calls_f&quot;, calls_f);
class_&lt;Base, BaseWrap&gt;(&quot;Base&quot;)
.def(&quot;f&quot;, &amp;Base::f, &amp;BaseWrap::f_default)
;
</pre>
<p>Now here's some Python code which demonstrates:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
&gt;&gt;&gt; class Derived(Base):
... def f(self, s):
... return len(s)
...
&gt;&gt;&gt; calls_f(Base(), 'foo')
42
&gt;&gt;&gt; calls_f(Derived(), 'forty-two')
9
</pre>
<p>Things to notice about the dispatcher class:</p>
<ul class="simple">
<li>The key element which allows overriding in Python is the
<tt class="docutils literal">call_method</tt> invocation, which uses the same global type
conversion registry as the C++ function wrapping does to convert its
arguments from C++ to Python and its return type from Python to C++.</li>
<li>Any constructor signatures you wish to wrap must be replicated with
an initial <tt class="docutils literal">PyObject*</tt> argument</li>
<li>The dispatcher must store this argument so that it can be used to
invoke <tt class="docutils literal">call_method</tt></li>
<li>The <tt class="docutils literal">f_default</tt> member function is needed when the function being
exposed is not pure virtual; there's no other way <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">Base::f</span></tt> can be
called on an object of type <tt class="docutils literal">BaseWrap</tt>, since it overrides <tt class="docutils literal">f</tt>.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="section" id="deeper-reflection-on-the-horizon">
<h3><a class="toc-backref" href="#id16">Deeper Reflection on the Horizon?</a></h3>
<p>Admittedly, this formula is tedious to repeat, especially on a project
with many polymorphic classes. That it is neccessary reflects some
limitations in C++'s compile-time introspection capabilities: there's
no way to enumerate the members of a class and find out which are
virtual functions. At least one very promising project has been
started to write a front-end which can generate these dispatchers (and
other wrapping code) automatically from C++ headers.</p>
<p><a class="reference external" href="http://www.boost.org/libs/python/pyste">Pyste</a> is being developed by Bruno da Silva de Oliveira. It builds on
<a class="reference external" href="http://www.gccxml.org/HTML/Index.html">GCC_XML</a>, which generates an XML version of GCC's internal program
representation. Since GCC is a highly-conformant C++ compiler, this
ensures correct handling of the most-sophisticated template code and
full access to the underlying type system. In keeping with the
Boost.Python philosophy, a Pyste interface description is neither
intrusive on the code being wrapped, nor expressed in some unfamiliar
language: instead it is a 100% pure Python script. If Pyste is
successful it will mark a move away from wrapping everything directly
in C++ for many of our users. It will also allow us the choice to
shift some of the metaprogram code from C++ to Python. We expect that
soon, not only our users but the Boost.Python developers themselves
will be &quot;thinking hybrid&quot; about their own code.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="serialization">
<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id17">Serialization</a></h2>
<p><em>Serialization</em> is the process of converting objects in memory to a
form that can be stored on disk or sent over a network connection. The
serialized object (most often a plain string) can be retrieved and
converted back to the original object. A good serialization system will
automatically convert entire object hierarchies. Python's standard
<tt class="docutils literal">pickle</tt> module is just such a system. It leverages the language's strong
runtime introspection facilities for serializing practically arbitrary
user-defined objects. With a few simple and unintrusive provisions this
powerful machinery can be extended to also work for wrapped C++ objects.
Here is an example:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
#include &lt;string&gt;
struct World
{
World(std::string a_msg) : msg(a_msg) {}
std::string greet() const { return msg; }
std::string msg;
};
#include &lt;boost/python.hpp&gt;
using namespace boost::python;
struct World_picklers : pickle_suite
{
static tuple
getinitargs(World const&amp; w) { return make_tuple(w.greet()); }
};
BOOST_PYTHON_MODULE(hello)
{
class_&lt;World&gt;(&quot;World&quot;, init&lt;std::string&gt;())
.def(&quot;greet&quot;, &amp;World::greet)
.def_pickle(World_picklers())
;
}
</pre>
<p>Now let's create a <tt class="docutils literal">World</tt> object and put it to rest on disk:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
&gt;&gt;&gt; import hello
&gt;&gt;&gt; import pickle
&gt;&gt;&gt; a_world = hello.World(&quot;howdy&quot;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; pickle.dump(a_world, open(&quot;my_world&quot;, &quot;w&quot;))
</pre>
<p>In a potentially <em>different script</em> on a potentially <em>different
computer</em> with a potentially <em>different operating system</em>:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
&gt;&gt;&gt; import pickle
&gt;&gt;&gt; resurrected_world = pickle.load(open(&quot;my_world&quot;, &quot;r&quot;))
&gt;&gt;&gt; resurrected_world.greet()
'howdy'
</pre>
<p>Of course the <tt class="docutils literal">cPickle</tt> module can also be used for faster
processing.</p>
<p>Boost.Python's <tt class="docutils literal">pickle_suite</tt> fully supports the <tt class="docutils literal">pickle</tt> protocol
defined in the standard Python documentation. Like a __getinitargs__
function in Python, the pickle_suite's getinitargs() is responsible for
creating the argument tuple that will be use to reconstruct the pickled
object. The other elements of the Python pickling protocol,
__getstate__ and __setstate__ can be optionally provided via C++
getstate and setstate functions. C++'s static type system allows the
library to ensure at compile-time that nonsensical combinations of
functions (e.g. getstate without setstate) are not used.</p>
<p>Enabling serialization of more complex C++ objects requires a little
more work than is shown in the example above. Fortunately the
<tt class="docutils literal">object</tt> interface (see next section) greatly helps in keeping the
code manageable.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="object-interface">
<h2><a class="toc-backref" href="#id18">Object interface</a></h2>
<p>Experienced 'C' language extension module authors will be familiar
with the ubiquitous <tt class="docutils literal">PyObject*</tt>, manual reference-counting, and the
need to remember which API calls return &quot;new&quot; (owned) references or
&quot;borrowed&quot; (raw) references. These constraints are not just
cumbersome but also a major source of errors, especially in the
presence of exceptions.</p>
<p>Boost.Python provides a class <tt class="docutils literal">object</tt> which automates reference
counting and provides conversion to Python from C++ objects of
arbitrary type. This significantly reduces the learning effort for
prospective extension module writers.</p>
<p>Creating an <tt class="docutils literal">object</tt> from any other type is extremely simple:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
object s(&quot;hello, world&quot;); // s manages a Python string
</pre>
<p><tt class="docutils literal">object</tt> has templated interactions with all other types, with
automatic to-python conversions. It happens so naturally that it's
easily overlooked:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
object ten_Os = 10 * s[4]; // -&gt; &quot;oooooooooo&quot;
</pre>
<p>In the example above, <tt class="docutils literal">4</tt> and <tt class="docutils literal">10</tt> are converted to Python objects
before the indexing and multiplication operations are invoked.</p>
<p>The <tt class="docutils literal">extract&lt;T&gt;</tt> class template can be used to convert Python objects
to C++ types:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
double x = extract&lt;double&gt;(o);
</pre>
<p>If a conversion in either direction cannot be performed, an
appropriate exception is thrown at runtime.</p>
<p>The <tt class="docutils literal">object</tt> type is accompanied by a set of derived types
that mirror the Python built-in types such as <tt class="docutils literal">list</tt>, <tt class="docutils literal">dict</tt>,
<tt class="docutils literal">tuple</tt>, etc. as much as possible. This enables convenient
manipulation of these high-level types from C++:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
dict d;
d[&quot;some&quot;] = &quot;thing&quot;;
d[&quot;lucky_number&quot;] = 13;
list l = d.keys();
</pre>
<p>This almost looks and works like regular Python code, but it is pure
C++. Of course we can wrap C++ functions which accept or return
<tt class="docutils literal">object</tt> instances.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="thinking-hybrid">
<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id19">Thinking hybrid</a></h1>
<p>Because of the practical and mental difficulties of combining
programming languages, it is common to settle a single language at the
outset of any development effort. For many applications, performance
considerations dictate the use of a compiled language for the core
algorithms. Unfortunately, due to the complexity of the static type
system, the price we pay for runtime performance is often a
significant increase in development time. Experience shows that
writing maintainable C++ code usually takes longer and requires <em>far</em>
more hard-earned working experience than developing comparable Python
code. Even when developers are comfortable working exclusively in
compiled languages, they often augment their systems by some type of
ad hoc scripting layer for the benefit of their users without ever
availing themselves of the same advantages.</p>
<p>Boost.Python enables us to <em>think hybrid</em>. Python can be used for
rapidly prototyping a new application; its ease of use and the large
pool of standard libraries give us a head start on the way to a
working system. If necessary, the working code can be used to
discover rate-limiting hotspots. To maximize performance these can
be reimplemented in C++, together with the Boost.Python bindings
needed to tie them back into the existing higher-level procedure.</p>
<p>Of course, this <em>top-down</em> approach is less attractive if it is clear
from the start that many algorithms will eventually have to be
implemented in C++. Fortunately Boost.Python also enables us to
pursue a <em>bottom-up</em> approach. We have used this approach very
successfully in the development of a toolbox for scientific
applications. The toolbox started out mainly as a library of C++
classes with Boost.Python bindings, and for a while the growth was
mainly concentrated on the C++ parts. However, as the toolbox is
becoming more complete, more and more newly added functionality can be
implemented in Python.</p>
<img alt="images/python_cpp_mix.png" src="images/python_cpp_mix.png" />
<p>This figure shows the estimated ratio of newly added C++ and Python
code over time as new algorithms are implemented. We expect this
ratio to level out near 70% Python. Being able to solve new problems
mostly in Python rather than a more difficult statically typed
language is the return on our investment in Boost.Python. The ability
to access all of our code from Python allows a broader group of
developers to use it in the rapid development of new applications.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="development-history">
<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id20">Development history</a></h1>
<p>The first version of Boost.Python was developed in 2000 by Dave
Abrahams at Dragon Systems, where he was privileged to have Tim Peters
as a guide to &quot;The Zen of Python&quot;. One of Dave's jobs was to develop
a Python-based natural language processing system. Since it was
eventually going to be targeting embedded hardware, it was always
assumed that the compute-intensive core would be rewritten in C++ to
optimize speed and memory footprint<a class="footnote-reference" href="#proto" id="id2"><sup>1</sup></a>. The project also wanted to
test all of its C++ code using Python test scripts<a class="footnote-reference" href="#test" id="id3"><sup>2</sup></a>. The only
tool we knew of for binding C++ and Python was <a class="reference external" href="http://www.swig.org/">SWIG</a>, and at the time
its handling of C++ was weak. It would be false to claim any deep
insight into the possible advantages of Boost.Python's approach at
this point. Dave's interest and expertise in fancy C++ template
tricks had just reached the point where he could do some real damage,
and Boost.Python emerged as it did because it filled a need and
because it seemed like a cool thing to try.</p>
<p>This early version was aimed at many of the same basic goals we've
described in this paper, differing most-noticeably by having a
slightly more cumbersome syntax and by lack of special support for
operator overloading, pickling, and component-based development.
These last three features were quickly added by Ullrich Koethe and
Ralf Grosse-Kunstleve<a class="footnote-reference" href="#feature" id="id4"><sup>3</sup></a>, and other enthusiastic contributors arrived
on the scene to contribute enhancements like support for nested
modules and static member functions.</p>
<p>By early 2001 development had stabilized and few new features were
being added, however a disturbing new fact came to light: Ralf had
begun testing Boost.Python on pre-release versions of a compiler using
the <a class="reference external" href="http://www.edg.com">EDG</a> front-end, and the mechanism at the core of Boost.Python
responsible for handling conversions between Python and C++ types was
failing to compile. As it turned out, we had been exploiting a very
common bug in the implementation of all the C++ compilers we had
tested. We knew that as C++ compilers rapidly became more
standards-compliant, the library would begin failing on more
platforms. Unfortunately, because the mechanism was so central to the
functioning of the library, fixing the problem looked very difficult.</p>
<p>Fortunately, later that year Lawrence Berkeley and later Lawrence
Livermore National labs contracted with <a class="reference external" href="http://www.boost-consulting.com">Boost Consulting</a> for support
and development of Boost.Python, and there was a new opportunity to
address fundamental issues and ensure a future for the library. A
redesign effort began with the low level type conversion architecture,
building in standards-compliance and support for component-based
development (in contrast to version 1 where conversions had to be
explicitly imported and exported across module boundaries). A new
analysis of the relationship between the Python and C++ objects was
done, resulting in more intuitive handling for C++ lvalues and
rvalues.</p>
<p>The emergence of a powerful new type system in Python 2.2 made the
choice of whether to maintain compatibility with Python 1.5.2 easy:
the opportunity to throw away a great deal of elaborate code for
emulating classic Python classes alone was too good to pass up. In
addition, Python iterators and descriptors provided crucial and
elegant tools for representing similar C++ constructs. The
development of the generalized <tt class="docutils literal">object</tt> interface allowed us to
further shield C++ programmers from the dangers and syntactic burdens
of the Python 'C' API. A great number of other features including C++
exception translation, improved support for overloaded functions, and
most significantly, CallPolicies for handling pointers and
references, were added during this period.</p>
<p>In October 2002, version 2 of Boost.Python was released. Development
since then has concentrated on improved support for C++ runtime
polymorphism and smart pointers. Peter Dimov's ingenious
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">boost::shared_ptr</span></tt> design in particular has allowed us to give the
hybrid developer a consistent interface for moving objects back and
forth across the language barrier without loss of information. At
first, we were concerned that the sophistication and complexity of the
Boost.Python v2 implementation might discourage contributors, but the
emergence of <a class="reference external" href="http://www.boost.org/libs/python/pyste">Pyste</a> and several other significant feature
contributions have laid those fears to rest. Daily questions on the
Python C++-sig and a backlog of desired improvements show that the
library is getting used. To us, the future looks bright.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="conclusions">
<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id21">Conclusions</a></h1>
<p>Boost.Python achieves seamless interoperability between two rich and
complimentary language environments. Because it leverages template
metaprogramming to introspect about types and functions, the user
never has to learn a third syntax: the interface definitions are
written in concise and maintainable C++. Also, the wrapping system
doesn't have to parse C++ headers or represent the type system: the
compiler does that work for us.</p>
<p>Computationally intensive tasks play to the strengths of C++ and are
often impossible to implement efficiently in pure Python, while jobs
like serialization that are trivial in Python can be very difficult in
pure C++. Given the luxury of building a hybrid software system from
the ground up, we can approach design with new confidence and power.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="citations">
<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id22">Citations</a></h1>
<table class="docutils citation" frame="void" id="veld1995" rules="none">
<colgroup><col class="label" /><col /></colgroup>
<tbody valign="top">
<tr><td class="label"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">[VELD1995]</a></td><td>T. Veldhuizen, &quot;Expression Templates,&quot; C++ Report,
Vol. 7 No. 5 June 1995, pp. 26-31.
<a class="reference external" href="http://osl.iu.edu/~tveldhui/papers/Expression-Templates/exprtmpl.html">http://osl.iu.edu/~tveldhui/papers/Expression-Templates/exprtmpl.html</a></td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<div class="section" id="footnotes">
<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id23">Footnotes</a></h1>
<table class="docutils footnote" frame="void" id="proto" rules="none">
<colgroup><col class="label" /><col /></colgroup>
<tbody valign="top">
<tr><td class="label"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">[1]</a></td><td>In retrospect, it seems that &quot;thinking hybrid&quot; from the
ground up might have been better for the NLP system: the
natural component boundaries defined by the pure python
prototype turned out to be inappropriate for getting the
desired performance and memory footprint out of the C++ core,
which eventually caused some redesign overhead on the Python
side when the core was moved to C++.</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table class="docutils footnote" frame="void" id="test" rules="none">
<colgroup><col class="label" /><col /></colgroup>
<tbody valign="top">
<tr><td class="label"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id3">[2]</a></td><td>We also have some reservations about driving all C++
testing through a Python interface, unless that's the only way
it will be ultimately used. Any transition across language
boundaries with such different object models can inevitably
mask bugs.</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table class="docutils footnote" frame="void" id="feature" rules="none">
<colgroup><col class="label" /><col /></colgroup>
<tbody valign="top">
<tr><td class="label"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id4">[3]</a></td><td>These features were expressed very differently in v1 of
Boost.Python</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
</div>
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<html>
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=US-ASCII">
<title>Chapter&#160;2.&#160;Building and Testing</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="boostbook.css" type="text/css">
<meta name="generator" content="DocBook XSL Stylesheets V1.79.1">
<link rel="home" href="index.html" title="Boost.Python">
<link rel="up" href="index.html" title="Boost.Python">
<link rel="prev" href="rn.html" title="Chapter&#160;1.&#160;Release Notes">
<link rel="next" href="building/background.html" title="Background">
</head>
<body bgcolor="white" text="black" link="#0000FF" vlink="#840084" alink="#0000FF">
<table cellpadding="2" width="100%"><tr><td valign="top"><img alt="" width="" height="" src="images/bpl.png"></td></tr></table>
<hr>
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<a accesskey="p" href="rn.html"><img src="images/prev.png" alt="Prev"></a><a accesskey="u" href="index.html"><img src="images/up.png" alt="Up"></a><a accesskey="h" href="index.html"><img src="images/home.png" alt="Home"></a><a accesskey="n" href="building/background.html"><img src="images/next.png" alt="Next"></a>
</div>
<div class="chapter">
<div class="titlepage"><div>
<div><h1 class="title">
<a name="building"></a>Chapter&#160;2.&#160;Building and Testing</h1></div>
<div><div class="authorgroup"><div class="author"><h3 class="author">
<span class="firstname">David</span> <span class="surname">Abrahams</span>
</h3></div></div></div>
<div><p class="copyright">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld</p></div>
</div></div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="building.requirements"></a><a class="link" href="building.html#building.requirements" title="Requirements">Requirements</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
Boost.Python requires <a href="http://www.python.org/2.2" target="_top">Python 2.2</a>
<a href="#ftn.building.requirements.f0" class="footnote" name="building.requirements.f0"><sup class="footnote">[1]</sup></a> <span class="bold"><strong>or</strong></span> <a href="http://www.python.org" target="_top">newer</a>.
</p>
</div>
<div class="footnotes">
<br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0">
<div id="ftn.building.requirements.f0" class="footnote"><p><a href="#building.requirements.f0" class="para"><sup class="para">[1] </sup></a>
Note that although we tested earlier versions of Boost.Python with Python
2.2, and we don't <span class="bold"><strong>think</strong></span> we've done anything
to break compatibility, this release of Boost.Python may not have been
tested with versions of Python earlier than 2.4, so we're not 100% sure
that python 2.2 and 2.3 are supported.
</p></div>
</div>
</div>
<table xmlns:rev="http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~gregod/boost/tools/doc/revision" width="100%"><tr>
<td align="left"></td>
<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
</p>
</div></td>
</tr></table>
<hr>
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<a accesskey="p" href="rn.html"><img src="images/prev.png" alt="Prev"></a><a accesskey="u" href="index.html"><img src="images/up.png" alt="Up"></a><a accesskey="h" href="index.html"><img src="images/home.png" alt="Home"></a><a accesskey="n" href="building/background.html"><img src="images/next.png" alt="Next"></a>
</div>
</body>
</html>

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<html>
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=US-ASCII">
<title>Background</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="../boostbook.css" type="text/css">
<meta name="generator" content="DocBook XSL Stylesheets V1.79.1">
<link rel="home" href="../index.html" title="Boost.Python">
<link rel="up" href="../building.html" title="Chapter&#160;2.&#160;Building and Testing">
<link rel="prev" href="../building.html" title="Chapter&#160;2.&#160;Building and Testing">
<link rel="next" href="no_install_quickstart.html" title="No-Install Quickstart">
</head>
<body bgcolor="white" text="black" link="#0000FF" vlink="#840084" alink="#0000FF">
<table cellpadding="2" width="100%"><tr><td valign="top"><img alt="" width="" height="" src="../images/bpl.png"></td></tr></table>
<hr>
<div class="spirit-nav">
<a accesskey="p" href="../building.html"><img src="../images/prev.png" alt="Prev"></a><a accesskey="u" href="../building.html"><img src="../images/up.png" alt="Up"></a><a accesskey="h" href="../index.html"><img src="../images/home.png" alt="Home"></a><a accesskey="n" href="no_install_quickstart.html"><img src="../images/next.png" alt="Next"></a>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="building.background"></a><a class="link" href="background.html" title="Background">Background</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
There are two basic models for combining C++ and Python:
</p>
<div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" style="list-style-type: disc; ">
<li class="listitem">
<a href="http://www.python.org/doc/current/ext/intro.html" target="_top">extending</a>,
in which the end-user launches the Python interpreter executable and
imports Python &#8220;extension modules&#8221; written in C++. Think of taking
a library written in C++ and giving it a Python interface so Python programmers
can use it. From Python, these modules look just like regular Python
modules.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<a href="http://www.python.org/doc/current/ext/embedding.html" target="_top">embedding</a>,
in which the end-user launches a program written in C++ that in turn
invokes the Python interpreter as a library subroutine. Think of adding
scriptability to an existing application.
</li>
</ul></div>
<p>
The key distinction between extending and embedding is the location of the
C++ <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">main</span><span class="special">()</span></code>
function: in the Python interpreter executable, or in some other program,
respectively. Note that even when embedding Python in another program, <a href="http://www.python.org/doc/current/ext/extending-with-embedding.html" target="_top">extension
modules are often the best way to make C/C++ functionality accessible to
Python code</a>, so the use of extension modules is really at the heart
of both models.
</p>
<p>
Except in rare cases, extension modules are built as dynamically-loaded libraries
with a single entry point, which means you can change them without rebuilding
either the other extension modules or the executable containing <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">main</span><span class="special">()</span></code>.
</p>
</div>
<table xmlns:rev="http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~gregod/boost/tools/doc/revision" width="100%"><tr>
<td align="left"></td>
<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<br>Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
</p>
</div></td>
</tr></table>
<hr>
<div class="spirit-nav">
<a accesskey="p" href="../building.html"><img src="../images/prev.png" alt="Prev"></a><a accesskey="u" href="../building.html"><img src="../images/up.png" alt="Up"></a><a accesskey="h" href="../index.html"><img src="../images/home.png" alt="Home"></a><a accesskey="n" href="no_install_quickstart.html"><img src="../images/next.png" alt="Next"></a>
</div>
</body>
</html>

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<html>
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=US-ASCII">
<title>Choosing a Boost.Python Library Binary</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="../boostbook.css" type="text/css">
<meta name="generator" content="DocBook XSL Stylesheets V1.79.1">
<link rel="home" href="../index.html" title="Boost.Python">
<link rel="up" href="../building.html" title="Chapter&#160;2.&#160;Building and Testing">
<link rel="prev" href="configuring_boost_build.html" title="Configuring Boost.Build">
<link rel="next" href="include_issues.html" title="#include Issues">
</head>
<body bgcolor="white" text="black" link="#0000FF" vlink="#840084" alink="#0000FF">
<table cellpadding="2" width="100%"><tr><td valign="top"><img alt="" width="" height="" src="../images/bpl.png"></td></tr></table>
<hr>
<div class="spirit-nav">
<a accesskey="p" href="configuring_boost_build.html"><img src="../images/prev.png" alt="Prev"></a><a accesskey="u" href="../building.html"><img src="../images/up.png" alt="Up"></a><a accesskey="h" href="../index.html"><img src="../images/home.png" alt="Home"></a><a accesskey="n" href="include_issues.html"><img src="../images/next.png" alt="Next"></a>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="building.choosing_a_boost_python_library_"></a><a class="link" href="choosing_a_boost_python_library_.html" title="Choosing a Boost.Python Library Binary">Choosing a
Boost.Python Library Binary</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<div class="toc"><dl class="toc">
<dt><span class="section"><a href="choosing_a_boost_python_library_.html#building.choosing_a_boost_python_library_.the_dynamic_binary">The
Dynamic Binary</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="choosing_a_boost_python_library_.html#building.choosing_a_boost_python_library_.the_static_binary">The
Static Binary</a></span></dt>
</dl></div>
<p>
If&#8212;instead of letting Boost.Build construct and link with the right libraries
automatically&#8212;you choose to use a pre-built Boost.Python library, you'll
need to think about which one to link with. The Boost.Python binary comes
in both static and dynamic flavors. Take care to choose the right flavor
for your application. <a href="#ftn.building.choosing_a_boost_python_library_.f0" class="footnote" name="building.choosing_a_boost_python_library_.f0"><sup class="footnote">[3]</sup></a>
</p>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
<a name="building.choosing_a_boost_python_library_.the_dynamic_binary"></a><a class="link" href="choosing_a_boost_python_library_.html#building.choosing_a_boost_python_library_.the_dynamic_binary" title="The Dynamic Binary">The
Dynamic Binary</a>
</h4></div></div></div>
<p>
The dynamic library is the safest and most-versatile choice:
</p>
<div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" style="list-style-type: disc; ">
<li class="listitem">
A single copy of the library code is used by all extension modules
built with a given toolset. <a href="#ftn.building.choosing_a_boost_python_library_.the_dynamic_binary.f0" class="footnote" name="building.choosing_a_boost_python_library_.the_dynamic_binary.f0"><sup class="footnote">[4]</sup></a>
</li>
<li class="listitem">
The library contains a type conversion registry. Because one registry
is shared among all extension modules, instances of a class exposed
to Python in one dynamically-loaded extension module can be passed
to functions exposed in another such module.
</li>
</ul></div>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
<a name="building.choosing_a_boost_python_library_.the_static_binary"></a><a class="link" href="choosing_a_boost_python_library_.html#building.choosing_a_boost_python_library_.the_static_binary" title="The Static Binary">The
Static Binary</a>
</h4></div></div></div>
<p>
It might be appropriate to use the static Boost.Python library in any of
the following cases:
</p>
<div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" style="list-style-type: disc; ">
<li class="listitem">
You are <a href="https://docs.python.org/2/extending/extending.html" target="_top">extending</a>
python and the types exposed in your dynamically-loaded extension module
don't need to be used by any other Boost.Python extension modules,
and you don't care if the core library code is duplicated among them.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
You are <a href="https://docs.python.org/2/extending/embedding.html" target="_top">embedding</a>
python in your application and either:
<div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" style="list-style-type: circle; ">
<li class="listitem">
You are targeting a Unix variant OS other than MacOS or AIX,
where the dynamically-loaded extension modules can &#8220;see&#8221;
the Boost.Python library symbols that are part of the executable.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
Or, you have statically linked some Boost.Python extension modules
into your application and you don't care if any dynamically-loaded
Boost.Python extension modules are able to use the types exposed
by your statically-linked extension modules (and vice-versa).
</li>
</ul></div>
</li>
</ul></div>
</div>
<div class="footnotes">
<br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0">
<div id="ftn.building.choosing_a_boost_python_library_.f0" class="footnote"><p><a href="#building.choosing_a_boost_python_library_.f0" class="para"><sup class="para">[3] </sup></a>
Information about how to identify the static and dynamic builds of Boost.Python
on <a href="http://boost.org/more/getting_started/windows.html#library-naming" target="_top">Windows</a>
/ <a href="http://boost.org/more/getting_started/unix-variants.html#library-naming" target="_top">Unix
variants</a>
</p></div>
<div id="ftn.building.choosing_a_boost_python_library_.the_dynamic_binary.f0" class="footnote"><p><a href="#building.choosing_a_boost_python_library_.the_dynamic_binary.f0" class="para"><sup class="para">[4] </sup></a>
Because of the way most *nix platforms share symbols among dynamically-loaded
objects, I'm not certain that extension modules built with different
compiler toolsets will always use different copies of the Boost.Python
library when loaded into the same Python instance. Not using different
libraries could be a good thing if the compilers have compatible
ABIs, because extension modules built with the two libraries would
be interoperable. Otherwise, it could spell disaster, since an extension
module and the Boost.Python library would have different ideas of
such things as class layout. I would appreciate someone doing the
experiment to find out what happens.
</p></div>
</div>
</div>
<table xmlns:rev="http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~gregod/boost/tools/doc/revision" width="100%"><tr>
<td align="left"></td>
<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<br>Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
</p>
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<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="building.configuring_boost_build"></a><a class="link" href="configuring_boost_build.html" title="Configuring Boost.Build">Configuring Boost.Build</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<div class="toc"><dl class="toc">
<dt><span class="section"><a href="configuring_boost_build.html#building.configuring_boost_build.python_configuration_parameters">Python
Configuration Parameters</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="configuring_boost_build.html#building.configuring_boost_build.examples">Examples</a></span></dt>
</dl></div>
<p>
As described in the <a href="http://www.boost.org/build/doc/html/bbv2/overview/configuration.html" target="_top">Boost.Build
Reference Manual</a>, a file called <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">user</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">config</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">jam</span></code> in
your home directory is used to specify the tools and libraries available
to the build system. You may need to create or edit <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">user</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">config</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">jam</span></code> to
tell Boost.Build how to invoke Python, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="preprocessor">#include</span></code>
its headers, and link with its libraries.
</p>
<div class="note"><table border="0" summary="Note">
<tr>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="top" width="25"><img alt="[Note]" src="../images/note.png"></td>
<th align="left">Note</th>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><p>
If you are using a unix-variant OS and you ran Boost's <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">configure</span></code>
script, it may have generated a <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">user</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">config</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">jam</span></code>
for you. <a href="#ftn.building.configuring_boost_build.f0" class="footnote" name="building.configuring_boost_build.f0"><sup class="footnote">[2]</sup></a> If your <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">configure</span></code>/<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">make</span></code> sequence was successful and Boost.Python
binaries were built, your <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">user</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">config</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">jam</span></code>
file is probably already correct.
</p></td></tr>
</table></div>
<p>
If you have one fairly &#8220;standard&#8221; python installation for your platform,
you might not need to do anything special to describe it. If you haven't
configured python in <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">user</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">config</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">jam</span></code> (and
you don't specify <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">--</span><span class="identifier">without</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">python</span></code>
on the Boost.Build command line), Boost.Build will automatically execute
the equivalent of
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">import</span> <span class="identifier">toolset</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="keyword">using</span> <span class="special">;</span>
<span class="keyword">using</span> <span class="identifier">python</span> <span class="special">;</span>
</pre>
<p>
which automatically looks for Python in the most likely places. However,
that only happens when using the Boost.Python project file (e.g. when referred
to by another project as in the quickstart method). If instead you are linking
against separately-compiled Boost.Python binaries, you should set up a <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">user</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">config</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">jam</span></code> file
with at least the minimal incantation above.
</p>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
<a name="building.configuring_boost_build.python_configuration_parameters"></a><a class="link" href="configuring_boost_build.html#building.configuring_boost_build.python_configuration_parameters" title="Python Configuration Parameters">Python
Configuration Parameters</a>
</h4></div></div></div>
<p>
If you have several versions of Python installed, or Python is installed
in an unusual way, you may want to supply any or all of the following optional
parameters to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">using</span> <span class="identifier">python</span></code>.
</p>
<div class="variablelist">
<p class="title"><b></b></p>
<dl class="variablelist">
<dt><span class="term">version</span></dt>
<dd><p>
the version of Python to use. Should be in Major.Minor format, for
example, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="number">2.3</span></code>. Do not
include the subminor version (i.e. <span class="bold"><strong>not</strong></span>
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="number">2.5</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="number">1</span></code>). If you have multiple Python versions
installed, the version will usually be the only configuration argument
required.
</p></dd>
<dt><span class="term">cmd-or-prefix</span></dt>
<dd><p>
preferably, a command that invokes a Python interpreter. Alternatively,
the installation prefix for Python libraries and header files. Only
use the alternative formulation if there is no appropriate Python
executable available.
</p></dd>
<dt><span class="term"><span class="bold"><strong>includes</strong></span></span></dt>
<dd><p>
the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="preprocessor">#include</span></code> paths
for Python headers. Normally the correct path(s) will be automatically
deduced from <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">version</span></code>
and/or <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">cmd</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="keyword">or</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">prefix</span></code>.
</p></dd>
<dt><span class="term"><span class="bold"><strong>libraries</strong></span></span></dt>
<dd><p>
the path to Python library binaries. On MacOS/Darwin, you can also
pass the path of the Python framework. Normally the correct path(s)
will be automatically deduced from <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">version</span></code>
and/or <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">cmd</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="keyword">or</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">prefix</span></code>.
</p></dd>
<dt><span class="term"><span class="bold"><strong>condition</strong></span></span></dt>
<dd><p>
if specified, should be a set of Boost.Build properties that are
matched against the build configuration when Boost.Build selects
a Python configuration to use. See examples below for details.
</p></dd>
<dt><span class="term"><span class="bold"><strong>extension-suffix</strong></span></span></dt>
<dd><p>
A string to append to the name of extension modules before the true
filename extension. You almost certainly don't need to use this.
Usually this suffix is only used when targeting a Windows debug build
of Python, and will be set automatically for you based on the value
of the <a class="link" href="python_debugging_builds.html" title="Python Debugging Builds">&lt;python-debugging&gt;</a>
feature. However, at least one Linux distribution (Ubuntu Feisty
Fawn) has a specially configured <a href="https://wiki.ubuntu.com/PyDbgBuilds" target="_top">&lt;python-dbg&gt;</a>
package that claims to use such a suffix.
</p></dd>
</dl>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
<a name="building.configuring_boost_build.examples"></a><a class="link" href="configuring_boost_build.html#building.configuring_boost_build.examples" title="Examples">Examples</a>
</h4></div></div></div>
<p>
Note that in the examples below, case and <span class="bold"><strong>especially
whitespace</strong></span> are significant.
</p>
<div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" style="list-style-type: disc; ">
<li class="listitem">
<p class="simpara">
If you have both python 2.5 and python 2.4 installed, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">user</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">config</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">jam</span></code> might contain
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">using</span> <span class="identifier">python</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="number">2.5</span> <span class="special">;</span> <span class="special">#</span> <span class="identifier">Make</span> <span class="identifier">both</span> <span class="identifier">versions</span> <span class="identifier">of</span> <span class="identifier">Python</span> <span class="identifier">available</span>
<span class="keyword">using</span> <span class="identifier">python</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="number">2.4</span> <span class="special">;</span> <span class="special">#</span> <span class="identifier">To</span> <span class="identifier">build</span> <span class="identifier">with</span> <span class="identifier">python</span> <span class="number">2.4</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">add</span> <span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">=</span><span class="number">2.4</span>
<span class="preprocessor"># to</span> <span class="identifier">your</span> <span class="identifier">command</span> <span class="identifier">line</span><span class="special">.</span>
</pre>
<p class="simpara">
The first version configured (2.5) becomes the default. To build against
python 2.4, add <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">=</span><span class="number">2.4</span></code>
to the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">bjam</span></code> command
line.
</p>
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<p class="simpara">
If you have python installed in an unusual location, you might supply
the path to the interpreter in the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">cmd</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="keyword">or</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">prefix</span></code>
parameter:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">using</span> <span class="identifier">python</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">usr</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">local</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="number">2.6</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">beta</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">bin</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">python</span> <span class="special">;</span>
</pre>
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<p class="simpara">
If you have a separate build of Python for use with a particular toolset,
you might supply that toolset in the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">condition</span></code>
parameter:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">using</span> <span class="identifier">python</span> <span class="special">;</span> <span class="special">#</span> <span class="identifier">use</span> <span class="keyword">for</span> <span class="identifier">most</span> <span class="identifier">toolsets</span>
<span class="preprocessor"># Use</span> <span class="identifier">with</span> <span class="identifier">Intel</span> <span class="identifier">C</span><span class="special">++</span> <span class="identifier">toolset</span>
<span class="keyword">using</span> <span class="identifier">python</span>
<span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">#</span> <span class="identifier">version</span>
<span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">c</span><span class="special">:\\</span><span class="identifier">Devel</span><span class="special">\\</span><span class="identifier">Python</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="number">2.5</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">IntelBuild</span><span class="special">\\</span><span class="identifier">PCBuild</span><span class="special">\\</span><span class="identifier">python</span> <span class="special">#</span> <span class="identifier">cmd</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="keyword">or</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">prefix</span>
<span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">#</span> <span class="identifier">includes</span>
<span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">#</span> <span class="identifier">libraries</span>
<span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">toolset</span><span class="special">&gt;</span><span class="identifier">intel</span> <span class="special">#</span> <span class="identifier">condition</span>
<span class="special">;</span>
</pre>
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<p class="simpara">
If you have downloaded the Python sources and built both the normal
and the <a class="link" href="python_debugging_builds.html" title="Python Debugging Builds">"python
debugging"</a> builds from source on Windows, you might see:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">using</span> <span class="identifier">python</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="number">2.5</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">C</span><span class="special">:\\</span><span class="identifier">src</span><span class="special">\\</span><span class="identifier">Python</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="number">2.5</span><span class="special">\\</span><span class="identifier">PCBuild</span><span class="special">\\</span><span class="identifier">python</span> <span class="special">;</span>
<span class="keyword">using</span> <span class="identifier">python</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="number">2.5</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">C</span><span class="special">:\\</span><span class="identifier">src</span><span class="special">\\</span><span class="identifier">Python</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="number">2.5</span><span class="special">\\</span><span class="identifier">PCBuild</span><span class="special">\\</span><span class="identifier">python_d</span>
<span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">#</span> <span class="identifier">includes</span>
<span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">#</span> <span class="identifier">libs</span>
<span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">debugging</span><span class="special">&gt;</span><span class="identifier">on</span> <span class="special">;</span>
</pre>
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<p class="simpara">
You can set up your user-config.jam so a bjam built under Windows can
build/test both Windows and Cygwin_ python extensions. Just pass <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">target</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">os</span><span class="special">&gt;</span><span class="identifier">cygwin</span></code>
in the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">condition</span></code> parameter
for the cygwin python installation:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="preprocessor"># windows</span> <span class="identifier">installation</span>
<span class="keyword">using</span> <span class="identifier">python</span> <span class="special">;</span>
<span class="preprocessor"># cygwin</span> <span class="identifier">installation</span>
<span class="keyword">using</span> <span class="identifier">python</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">c</span><span class="special">:\\</span><span class="identifier">cygwin</span><span class="special">\\</span><span class="identifier">bin</span><span class="special">\\</span><span class="identifier">python2</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="number">5</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">target</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">os</span><span class="special">&gt;</span><span class="identifier">cygwin</span> <span class="special">;</span>
</pre>
<p class="simpara">
when you put target-os=cygwin in your build request, it should build
with the cygwin version of python: <a name="flavor"></a>_
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">bjam</span> <span class="identifier">target</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">os</span><span class="special">=</span><span class="identifier">cygwin</span> <span class="identifier">toolset</span><span class="special">=</span><span class="identifier">gcc</span>
</pre>
<p class="simpara">
This is supposed to work the other way, too (targeting windows python
with a <a href="http://cygwin.com" target="_top">Cygwin</a> bjam) but it seems
as though the support in Boost.Build's toolsets for building that way
is broken at the time of this writing.
</p>
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<p class="simpara">
Note that because of <a href="http://zigzag.cs.msu.su/boost.build/wiki/AlternativeSelection" target="_top">the
way Boost.Build currently selects target alternatives</a>, you
might have be very explicit in your build requests. For example, given:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">using</span> <span class="identifier">python</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="number">2.5</span> <span class="special">;</span> <span class="special">#</span> <span class="identifier">a</span> <span class="identifier">regular</span> <span class="identifier">windows</span> <span class="identifier">build</span>
<span class="keyword">using</span> <span class="identifier">python</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="number">2.4</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">target</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">os</span><span class="special">&gt;</span><span class="identifier">cygwin</span> <span class="special">;</span>
</pre>
<p class="simpara">
building with
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">bjam</span> <span class="identifier">target</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">os</span><span class="special">=</span><span class="identifier">cygwin</span>
</pre>
<p class="simpara">
will yield an error. Instead, you'll need to write
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">bjam</span> <span class="identifier">target</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">os</span><span class="special">=</span><span class="identifier">cygwin</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">=</span><span class="number">2.4</span>
</pre>
</li>
</ul></div>
</div>
<div class="footnotes">
<br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0">
<div id="ftn.building.configuring_boost_build.f0" class="footnote"><p><a href="#building.configuring_boost_build.f0" class="para"><sup class="para">[2] </sup></a>
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">configure</span></code> overwrites
the existing <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">user</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">config</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">jam</span></code> in your home directory (if any)
after making a backup of the old version.
</p></div>
</div>
</div>
<table xmlns:rev="http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~gregod/boost/tools/doc/revision" width="100%"><tr>
<td align="left"></td>
<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<br>Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
</p>
</div></td>
</tr></table>
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<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="building.include_issues"></a><a class="link" href="include_issues.html" title="#include Issues"><code class="computeroutput"><span class="preprocessor">#include</span></code>
Issues</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
1. If you should ever have occasion to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="preprocessor">#include</span>
<span class="string">"python.h"</span></code> directly in a
translation unit of a program using Boost.Python, use <code class="computeroutput"><span class="preprocessor">#include</span>
<span class="string">"boost/python/detail/wrap_python.hpp"</span></code>
instead. It handles several issues necessary for use with Boost.Python, one
of which is mentioned in the next section.
</p>
<p>
2. Be sure not to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="preprocessor">#include</span></code>
any system headers before <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">wrap_python</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span></code>. This
restriction is actually imposed by Python, or more properly, by Python's
interaction with your operating system. See <a href="http://docs.python.org/ext/simpleExample.html" target="_top">http://docs.python.org/ext/simpleExample.html</a>
for details.
</p>
</div>
<table xmlns:rev="http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~gregod/boost/tools/doc/revision" width="100%"><tr>
<td align="left"></td>
<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<br>Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
</p>
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<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="building.installing_boost_python_on_your_"></a><a class="link" href="installing_boost_python_on_your_.html" title="Installing Boost.Python on your System">Installing
Boost.Python on your System</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
Since Boost.Python is a separately-compiled (as opposed to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">header</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">only</span></code>) library, its user relies on the services
of a Boost.Python library binary.
</p>
<p>
If you need a regular installation of the Boost.Python library binaries on
your system, the Boost <a href="http://www.boost.org/more/getting_started/" target="_top">Getting
Started Guide</a> will walk you through the steps of creating one. If
building binaries from source, you might want to supply the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">--</span><span class="identifier">with</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">python</span></code>
argument to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">bjam</span></code> (or the
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">--</span><span class="identifier">with</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">libraries</span><span class="special">=</span><span class="identifier">python</span></code>
argument to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">configure</span></code>), so
only the Boost.Python binary will be built, rather than all the Boost binaries.
</p>
</div>
<table xmlns:rev="http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~gregod/boost/tools/doc/revision" width="100%"><tr>
<td align="left"></td>
<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<br>Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
</p>
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<title>No-Install Quickstart</title>
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<meta name="generator" content="DocBook XSL Stylesheets V1.79.1">
<link rel="home" href="../index.html" title="Boost.Python">
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<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="building.no_install_quickstart"></a><a class="link" href="no_install_quickstart.html" title="No-Install Quickstart">No-Install Quickstart</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<div class="toc"><dl class="toc">
<dt><span class="section"><a href="no_install_quickstart.html#building.no_install_quickstart.basic_procedure">Basic
Procedure</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="no_install_quickstart.html#building.no_install_quickstart.in_case_of_trouble">In
Case of Trouble</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="no_install_quickstart.html#building.no_install_quickstart.in_case_everything_seemed_to_wor">In
Case Everything Seemed to Work</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="no_install_quickstart.html#building.no_install_quickstart.modifying_the_example_project">Modifying
the Example Project</a></span></dt>
</dl></div>
<p>
There is no need to &#8220;install Boost&#8221; in order to get started using Boost.Python.
These instructions use <a href="http://www.boost.org/build" target="_top">Boost.Build</a>
projects, which will build those binaries as soon as they're needed. Your
first tests may take a little longer while you wait for Boost.Python to build,
but doing things this way will save you from worrying about build intricacies
like which library binaries to use for a specific compiler configuration
and figuring out the right compiler options to use yourself.
</p>
<div class="note"><table border="0" summary="Note">
<tr>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="top" width="25"><img alt="[Note]" src="../images/note.png"></td>
<th align="left">Note</th>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="top">
<p>
Of course it's possible to use other build systems to build Boost.Python
and its extensions, but they are not officially supported by Boost. Moreover
<span class="bold"><strong>99% of all &#8220;I can't build Boost.Python&#8221; problems
come from trying to use another build system</strong></span> without first following
these instructions.
</p>
<p>
If you want to use another system anyway, we suggest that you follow these
instructions, and then invoke <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">bjam</span></code>
with the
</p>
<p>
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">a</span>
<span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">o</span></code><span class="emphasis"><em>filename</em></span>
</p>
<p>
options to dump the build commands it executes to a file, so you can see
what your alternate build system needs to do.
</p>
</td></tr>
</table></div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
<a name="building.no_install_quickstart.basic_procedure"></a><a class="link" href="no_install_quickstart.html#building.no_install_quickstart.basic_procedure" title="Basic Procedure">Basic
Procedure</a>
</h4></div></div></div>
<p>
1. Get Boost; see sections 1 and 2 of the Boost <a href="http://www.boost.org/more/getting_started/" target="_top">Getting
Started Guide</a>.
</p>
<p>
2. Get the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">bjam</span></code> build driver.
See section 5 of the Boost <a href="http://www.boost.org/more/getting_started/" target="_top">Getting
Started Guide</a>.
</p>
<p>
3. cd into the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">example</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">quickstart</span><span class="special">/</span></code> directory of your Boost.Python installation,
which contains a small example project.
</p>
<p>
4. Invoke <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">bjam</span></code>. Replace
the &#8220;<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">stage</span></code>&#8220; argument
from the example invocation from section 5 of the Boost <a href="http://www.boost.org/more/getting_started/" target="_top">Getting
Started Guide</a> with &#8220;<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">test</span></code>,&#8220;
to build all the test targets. Also add the argument &#8220;<code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">--</span><span class="identifier">verbose</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">test</span></code>&#8221; to see the output generated by
the tests when they are run. On Windows, your <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">bjam</span></code>
invocation might look something like:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">C</span><span class="special">:\\...\\</span><span class="identifier">quickstart</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">bjam</span> <span class="identifier">toolset</span><span class="special">=</span><span class="identifier">msvc</span> <span class="special">--</span><span class="identifier">verbose</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">test</span> <span class="identifier">test</span>
</pre>
<p>
and on Unix variants, perhaps,
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="special">.../</span><span class="identifier">quickstart</span><span class="error">$</span> <span class="identifier">bjam</span> <span class="identifier">toolset</span><span class="special">=</span><span class="identifier">gcc</span> <span class="special">--</span><span class="identifier">verbose</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">test</span> <span class="identifier">test</span>
</pre>
<div class="note"><table border="0" summary="Note">
<tr>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="top" width="25"><img alt="[Note]" src="../images/note.png"></td>
<th align="left">Note</th>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><p>
For the sake of concision, the rest of this guide will use unix-style
forward slashes in pathnames instead of the backslashes with which Windows
users may be more familiar. The forward slashes should work everywhere
except in <a href="http://www.boost.org/more/getting_started/windows.html#command-prompt" target="_top">Command
Prompt</a> windows, where you should use backslashes.
</p></td></tr>
</table></div>
<p>
If you followed this procedure successfully, you will have built an extension
module called <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">extending</span></code>
and tested it by running a Python script called <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">test_extending</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">py</span></code>.
You will also have built and run a simple application called <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">embedding</span></code> that embeds python.
</p>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
<a name="building.no_install_quickstart.in_case_of_trouble"></a><a class="link" href="no_install_quickstart.html#building.no_install_quickstart.in_case_of_trouble" title="In Case of Trouble">In
Case of Trouble</a>
</h4></div></div></div>
<p>
If you're seeing lots of compiler and/or linker error messages, it's probably
because Boost.Build is having trouble finding your Python installation.
You might want to pass the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">--</span><span class="identifier">debug</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">configuration</span></code> option to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">bjam</span></code> the first few times you invoke it,
to make sure that Boost.Build is correctly locating all the parts of your
Python installation. If it isn't, consider <a class="link" href="configuring_boost_build.html" title="Configuring Boost.Build">Configuring
Boost.Build</a> as detailed below.
</p>
<p>
If you're still having trouble, Someone on one of the following mailing
lists may be able to help:
</p>
<div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" style="list-style-type: disc; ">
<li class="listitem">
The <a href="http://www.boost.org/more/mailing_lists.htm#jamboost" target="_top">Boost.Build
mailing list</a> for issues related to Boost.Build
</li>
<li class="listitem">
The <a href="http://www.boost.org/more/mailing_lists.htm#cplussig" target="_top">Boost.Python
mailing list</a> for issues specifically related to Boost.Python
</li>
</ul></div>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
<a name="building.no_install_quickstart.in_case_everything_seemed_to_wor"></a><a class="link" href="no_install_quickstart.html#building.no_install_quickstart.in_case_everything_seemed_to_wor" title="In Case Everything Seemed to Work">In
Case Everything Seemed to Work</a>
</h4></div></div></div>
<p>
Rejoice! If you're new to Boost.Python, at this point it might be a good
idea to ignore build issues for a while and concentrate on learning the
library by going through the <a href="../tutorial/index.html" target="_top">Tutorial</a>
and perhaps some of the <a href="../reference/index.html" target="_top">Reference Manual</a>,
trying out what you've learned about the API by modifying the quickstart
project.
</p>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
<a name="building.no_install_quickstart.modifying_the_example_project"></a><a class="link" href="no_install_quickstart.html#building.no_install_quickstart.modifying_the_example_project" title="Modifying the Example Project">Modifying
the Example Project</a>
</h4></div></div></div>
<div class="toc"><dl class="toc">
<dt><span class="section"><a href="no_install_quickstart.html#building.no_install_quickstart.modifying_the_example_project.relocate_the_project">Relocate
the Project</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="no_install_quickstart.html#building.no_install_quickstart.modifying_the_example_project.add_new_or_change_names_of_exist">Add
New or Change Names of Existing Source Files</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="no_install_quickstart.html#building.no_install_quickstart.modifying_the_example_project.change_the_name_of_your_extensio">Change
the Name of your Extension Module</a></span></dt>
</dl></div>
<p>
If you're content to keep your extension module forever in one source file
called <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">extending</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">cpp</span></code>, inside your Boost.Python distribution,
and import it forever as <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">extending</span></code>,
then you can stop here. However, it's likely that you will want to make
a few changes. There are a few things you can do without having to learn
<a href="http://www.boost.org/build" target="_top">Boost.Build</a> in depth.
</p>
<p>
The project you just built is specified in two files in the current directory:
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">build</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">jam</span></code>, which tells <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">bjam</span></code>
where it can find the interpreted code of the Boost build system, and
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Jamroot</span></code>, which describes
the targets you just built. These files are heavily commented, so they
should be easy to modify. Take care, however, to preserve whitespace. Punctuation
such as <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">;</span></code> will not be recognized
as intended by <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">bjam</span></code> if
it is not surrounded by whitespace.
</p>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h5 class="title">
<a name="building.no_install_quickstart.modifying_the_example_project.relocate_the_project"></a><a class="link" href="no_install_quickstart.html#building.no_install_quickstart.modifying_the_example_project.relocate_the_project" title="Relocate the Project">Relocate
the Project</a>
</h5></div></div></div>
<p>
You'll probably want to copy this project elsewhere so you can change
it without modifying your Boost distribution. To do that, simply
</p>
<p>
a. copy the entire <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">example</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">quickstart</span><span class="special">/</span></code> directory into a new directory.
</p>
<p>
b. In the new copies of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">build</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">jam</span></code>
and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Jamroot</span></code>, locate the
relative path near the top of the file that is clearly marked by a comment,
and edit that path so that it refers to the same directory your Boost
distribution as it referred to when the file was in its original location
in the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">example</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">quickstart</span><span class="special">/</span></code>
directory.
</p>
<p>
For example, if you moved the project from <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">home</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">dave</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">boost_1_34_0</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">libs</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">example</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">quickstart</span></code> to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">home</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">dave</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">my</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">project</span></code>, you could change the first
path in <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">build</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">jam</span></code> from
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="special">../../../../</span><span class="identifier">tools</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">build</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">src</span>
</pre>
<p>
to
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">home</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">dave</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">boost_1_34_0</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">tools</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">build</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">src</span>
</pre>
<p>
and change the first path in <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Jamroot</span></code>
from
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="special">../../../..</span>
</pre>
<p>
to
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">home</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">dave</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">boost_1_34_0</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h5 class="title">
<a name="building.no_install_quickstart.modifying_the_example_project.add_new_or_change_names_of_exist"></a><a class="link" href="no_install_quickstart.html#building.no_install_quickstart.modifying_the_example_project.add_new_or_change_names_of_exist" title="Add New or Change Names of Existing Source Files">Add
New or Change Names of Existing Source Files</a>
</h5></div></div></div>
<p>
The names of additional source files involved in building your extension
module or embedding application can be listed in <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Jamroot</span></code>
right alongside <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">extending</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">cpp</span></code>
or <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">embedding</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">cpp</span></code> respectively. Just be sure to leave
whitespace around each filename:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="error">&#8230;</span> <span class="identifier">file1</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">cpp</span> <span class="identifier">file2</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">cpp</span> <span class="identifier">file3</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">cpp</span> <span class="error">&#8230;</span>
</pre>
<p>
Naturally, if you want to change the name of a source file you can tell
Boost.Build about it by editing the name in <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Jamroot</span></code>.
</p>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h5 class="title">
<a name="building.no_install_quickstart.modifying_the_example_project.change_the_name_of_your_extensio"></a><a class="link" href="no_install_quickstart.html#building.no_install_quickstart.modifying_the_example_project.change_the_name_of_your_extensio" title="Change the Name of your Extension Module">Change
the Name of your Extension Module</a>
</h5></div></div></div>
<p>
The name of the extension module is determined by two things:
</p>
<div class="orderedlist"><ol class="orderedlist" type="1">
<li class="listitem">
the name in <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Jamroot</span></code>
immediately following <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">extension</span></code>,
and
</li>
<li class="listitem">
the name passed to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">BOOST_PYTHON_MODULE</span></code>
in <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">extending</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">cpp</span></code>.
</li>
</ol></div>
<p>
To change the name of the extension module from <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">extending</span></code>
to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">hello</span></code>, you'd edit
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Jamroot</span></code>, changing
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">extension</span> <span class="identifier">extending</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">extending</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">cpp</span> <span class="special">;</span>
</pre>
<p>
to
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">extension</span> <span class="identifier">hello</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">extending</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">cpp</span> <span class="special">;</span>
</pre>
<p>
and you'd edit extending.cpp, changing
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">BOOST_PYTHON_MODULE</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">extending</span><span class="special">)</span>
</pre>
<p>
to
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">BOOST_PYTHON_MODULE</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">hello</span><span class="special">)</span>
</pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
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<td align="left"></td>
<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<br>Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
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<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
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MinGW (and Cygwin with -mno-cygwin) GCC Users</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
If you are using a version of Python prior to 2.4.1 with a MinGW prior to
3.0.0 (with binutils-2.13.90-20030111-1), you will need to create a MinGW-compatible
version of the Python library; the one shipped with Python will only work
with a Microsoft-compatible linker. Follow the instructions in the &#8220;Non-Microsoft&#8221;
section of the &#8220;Building Extensions: Tips And Tricks&#8221; chapter in <a href="https://docs.python.org/2/install/index.html" target="_top">Installing Python Modules</a>
to create <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">libpythonXX</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">a</span></code>, where <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">XX</span></code>
corresponds to the major and minor version numbers of your Python installation.
</p>
</div>
<table xmlns:rev="http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~gregod/boost/tools/doc/revision" width="100%"><tr>
<td align="left"></td>
<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<br>Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
</p>
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<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="building.python_debugging_builds"></a><a class="link" href="python_debugging_builds.html" title="Python Debugging Builds">Python Debugging Builds</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
Python can be built in a special &#8220;python debugging&#8221; configuration that
adds extra checks and instrumentation that can be very useful for developers
of extension modules. The data structures used by the debugging configuration
contain additional members, so <span class="bold"><strong>a Python executable
built with python debugging enabled cannot be used with an extension module
or library compiled without it, and vice-versa.</strong></span>
</p>
<p>
Since pre-built &#8220;python debugging&#8221; versions of the Python executable
and libraries are not supplied with most distributions of Python, <a href="#ftn.building.python_debugging_builds.f0" class="footnote" name="building.python_debugging_builds.f0"><sup class="footnote">[5]</sup></a> and we didn't want to force our users to build them, Boost.Build
does not automatically enable python debugging in its <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">debug</span></code>
build variant (which is the default). Instead there is a special build property
called <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">debugging</span></code> that, when used as a build property,
will define the right preprocessor symbols and select the right libraries
to link with.
</p>
<p>
On unix-variant platforms, the debugging versions of Python's data structures
will only be used if the symbol <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Py_DEBUG</span></code>
is defined. On many windows compilers, when extension modules are built with
the preprocessor symbol <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">_DEBUG</span></code>,
Python defaults to force linking with a special debugging version of the
Python DLL. Since that symbol is very commonly used even when Python is not
present, Boost.Python temporarily undefines <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">_DEBUG</span></code>
when <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Python</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">h</span></code> is #included from <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">detail</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">wrap_python</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span></code> -
unless <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">BOOST_DEBUG_PYTHON</span></code>
is defined. The upshot is that if you want &#8220;python debugging&#8221;and you
aren't using Boost.Build, you should make sure <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">BOOST_DEBUG_PYTHON</span></code>
is defined, or python debugging will be suppressed.
</p>
<div class="footnotes">
<br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0">
<div id="ftn.building.python_debugging_builds.f0" class="footnote"><p><a href="#building.python_debugging_builds.f0" class="para"><sup class="para">[5] </sup></a>
On Unix and similar platforms, a debugging python and associated libraries
are built by adding --with-pydebug when configuring the Python build. On
Windows, the debugging version of Python is generated by the "Win32
Debug" target of the Visual Studio project in the PCBuild subdirectory
of a full Python source code distribution.
</p></div>
</div>
</div>
<table xmlns:rev="http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~gregod/boost/tools/doc/revision" width="100%"><tr>
<td align="left"></td>
<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<br>Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
</p>
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<a name="building.testing_boost_python"></a><a class="link" href="testing_boost_python.html" title="Testing Boost.Python">Testing Boost.Python</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
To run the full test suite for Boost.Python, invoke <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">bjam</span></code>
in the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">test</span></code> subdirectory
of your Boost.Python distribution.
</p>
</div>
<table xmlns:rev="http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~gregod/boost/tools/doc/revision" width="100%"><tr>
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<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<br>Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
</p>
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<div class="chapter">
<div class="titlepage"><div>
<div><h1 class="title">
<a name="configuration"></a>Chapter&#160;3.&#160;Configuration</h1></div>
<div><div class="authorgroup"><div class="author"><h3 class="author">
<span class="firstname">David</span> <span class="surname">Abrahams</span>
</h3></div></div></div>
<div><p class="copyright">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld</p></div>
</div></div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="configuration.configuration"></a><a class="link" href="configuration.html#configuration.configuration" title="Configuration">Configuration</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<div class="toc"><dl class="toc">
<dt><span class="section"><a href="configuration.html#configuration.configuration.introduction">Introduction</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="configuration.html#configuration.configuration.application_defined_macros">Application
Defined Macros</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="configuration.html#configuration.configuration.library_defined_defined_macros">Library
Defined Defined Macros</a></span></dt>
</dl></div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
<a name="configuration.configuration.introduction"></a><a class="link" href="configuration.html#configuration.configuration.introduction" title="Introduction">Introduction</a>
</h4></div></div></div>
<p>
<span class="bold"><strong>Boost.Python</strong></span> uses several configuration
macros in <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">config</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>, as well as configuration macros meant
to be supplied by the application. These macros are documented here.
</p>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
<a name="configuration.configuration.application_defined_macros"></a><a class="link" href="configuration.html#configuration.configuration.application_defined_macros" title="Application Defined Macros">Application
Defined Macros</a>
</h4></div></div></div>
<p>
These are the macros that may be defined by an application using Boost.Python.
Note that if you extend a strict interpretation of the C++ standard to
cover dynamic libraries, using different values of these macros when compiling
different libraries (including extension modules and the Boost.Python library
itself) is a violation of the <a class="link" href="glossary.html#odr">ODR</a>. However,
we know of no C++ implementations on which this particular violation is
detectable or causes any problems.
</p>
<div class="informaltable"><table class="table">
<colgroup>
<col>
<col>
<col>
</colgroup>
<thead><tr>
<th>
<p>
Macro
</p>
</th>
<th>
<p>
Default
</p>
</th>
<th>
<p>
Meaning
</p>
</th>
</tr></thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>
<p>
BOOST_PYTHON_MAX_ARITY
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
15
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
The maximum arity of any function, member function, or constructor
to be wrapped, invocation of a Boost.Python function wich is
specified as taking arguments x1, x2,...Xn. This includes, in
particular, callback mechanisms such as object::operator()(...)
or call_method&lt;R&gt;(... ).
</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p>
BOOST_PYTHON_MAX_BASES
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
10
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
The maximum number of template arguments to the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">bases</span><span class="special">&lt;...&gt;</span></code>
class template, which is used to specify the bases of a wrapped
C++ class..
</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p>
BOOST_PYTHON_STATIC_MODULE
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
<span class="emphasis"><em>not defined</em></span>
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
If defined, prevents your module initialization function from
being treated as an exported symbol on platforms which support
that distinction in-code
</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p>
BOOST_PYTHON_ENABLE_CDECL
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
<span class="emphasis"><em>not defined</em></span>
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
If defined, allows functions using the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">__cdecl</span></code>
calling convention to be wrapped.
</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p>
BOOST_PYTHON_ENABLE_STDCALL
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
<span class="emphasis"><em>not defined</em></span>
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
If defined, allows functions using the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">__stdcall</span></code>
calling convention to be wrapped.
</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p>
BOOST_PYTHON_ENABLE_FASTCALL
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
<span class="emphasis"><em>not defined</em></span>
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
If defined, allows functions using the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">__fastcall</span></code>
calling convention to be wrapped.
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table></div>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
<a name="configuration.configuration.library_defined_defined_macros"></a><a class="link" href="configuration.html#configuration.configuration.library_defined_defined_macros" title="Library Defined Defined Macros">Library
Defined Defined Macros</a>
</h4></div></div></div>
<p>
These macros are defined by <span class="bold"><strong>Boost.Python</strong></span>
and are implementation details of interest only to implementors and those
porting to new platforms.
</p>
<div class="informaltable"><table class="table">
<colgroup>
<col>
<col>
<col>
</colgroup>
<thead><tr>
<th>
<p>
Macro
</p>
</th>
<th>
<p>
Default
</p>
</th>
<th>
<p>
Meaning
</p>
</th>
</tr></thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>
<p>
BOOST_PYTHON_TYPE_ID_NAME
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
<span class="emphasis"><em>not defined</em></span>
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
If defined, this indicates that the type_info comparison across
shared library boundaries does not work on this platform. In
other words, if shared-lib-1 passes <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">typeid</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">)</span></code> to a function in shared-lib-2
which compares it to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">typeid</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">)</span></code>, that comparison may return
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">false</span></code>. If this macro
is #defined, Boost.Python uses and compares <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">typeid</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">).</span><span class="identifier">name</span><span class="special">()</span></code> instead of using and comparing
the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">type_info</span></code> objects directly.
</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p>
BOOST_PYTHON_NO_PY_SIGNATURES
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
<span class="emphasis"><em>not defined</em></span>
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
If defined for a module no pythonic signatures are generated
for the docstrings of the module functions, and no python type
is associated with any of the converters registered by the module.
This also reduces the binary size of the module by about 14%
(gcc compiled). If defined for the boost_python runtime library,
the default for the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">docstring_options</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">enable_py_signatures</span><span class="special">()</span></code> is set to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">false</span></code>.
</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p>
BOOST_PYTHON_SUPPORTS_PY_SIGNATURES
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
<span class="emphasis"><em>defined</em></span> if <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">BOOST_PYTHON_NO_PY_SIGNATURES</span></code>
is <span class="emphasis"><em>undefined</em></span>
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
This macro is defined to enable a smooth transition from older
Boost.Python versions which do not support pythonic signatures.
For example usage see here.
</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p>
BOOST_PYTHON_PY_SIGNATURES_PROPER_INIT_SELF_TYPE
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
<span class="emphasis"><em>not defined</em></span>
</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>
If defined the python type of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">__init__</span></code>
method "self" parameters is properly generated, otherwise
object is used. It is undefined by default because it increases
the binary size of the module by about 14% (gcc compiled).
</p>
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Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
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<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h1 class="title">
<a name="faq"></a>Chapter&#160;5.&#160;Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)</h1></div></div></div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="faq.how_can_i_wrap_a_function_which_"></a><a class="link" href="faq.html#faq.how_can_i_wrap_a_function_which_" title="How can I wrap a function which takes a function pointer as an argument?">How can I wrap
a function which takes a function pointer as an argument?</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
If what you're trying to do is something like this:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">typedef</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">function</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">string</span> <span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">funcptr</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">foo</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">funcptr</span> <span class="identifier">fp</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="identifier">fp</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"hello,world!"</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
<span class="identifier">BOOST_PYTHON_MODULE</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">test</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="identifier">def</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"foo"</span><span class="special">,</span><span class="identifier">foo</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
And then:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="special">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">def</span> <span class="identifier">hello</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">):</span>
<span class="special">...</span> <span class="identifier">print</span> <span class="identifier">s</span>
<span class="special">...</span>
<span class="special">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">foo</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">hello</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="identifier">hello</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">world</span><span class="special">!</span>
</pre>
<p>
The short answer is: "you can't". This is not a Boost.Python limitation
so much as a limitation of C++. The problem is that a Python function is
actually data, and the only way of associating data with a C++ function pointer
is to store it in a static variable of the function. The problem with that
is that you can only associate one piece of data with every C++ function,
and we have no way of compiling a new C++ function on-the-fly for every Python
function you decide to pass to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">foo</span></code>.
In other words, this could work if the C++ function is always going to invoke
the <span class="emphasis"><em>same</em></span> Python function, but you probably don't want
that.
</p>
<p>
If you have the luxury of changing the C++ code you're wrapping, pass it
an <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">object</span></code> instead and call
that; the overloaded function call operator will invoke the Python function
you pass it behind the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">object</span></code>.
</p>
</div>
</div>
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<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
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<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="faq.compilation_takes_too_much_time_"></a><a class="link" href="compilation_takes_too_much_time_.html" title="Compilation takes too much time and eats too much memory! What can I do to make it faster?">Compilation takes
too much time and eats too much memory! What can I do to make it faster?</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
Please refer to the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Reducing</span> <span class="identifier">Compiling</span> <span class="identifier">Time</span></code>
section in the <a href="../tutorial/index.html" target="_top">Tutorial</a>.
</p>
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Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
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<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="faq.does_boost_python_work_with_mac_"></a><a class="link" href="does_boost_python_work_with_mac_.html" title="Does Boost.Python work with Mac OS X?">Does Boost.Python
work with Mac OS X?</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
It is known to work under 10.2.8 and 10.3 using Apple's gcc 3.3 compiler:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">gcc</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">GCC</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="number">3.3</span> <span class="number">20030304</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">Apple</span> <span class="identifier">Computer</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">Inc</span><span class="special">.</span> <span class="identifier">build</span> <span class="number">1493</span><span class="special">)</span></pre>
<p>
Under 10.2.8 get the August 2003 gcc update (free at <a href="http://connect.apple.com" target="_top">http://connect.apple.com</a>).
Under 10.3 get the Xcode Tools v1.0 (also free).
</p>
<p>
Python 2.3 is required. The Python that ships with 10.3 is fine. Under 10.2.8
use these commands to install Python as a framework:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="special">./</span><span class="identifier">configure</span> <span class="special">--</span><span class="identifier">enable</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">framework</span>
<span class="identifier">make</span>
<span class="identifier">make</span> <span class="identifier">frameworkinstall</span></pre>
<p>
The last command requires root privileges because the target directory is
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">Library</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">Frameworks</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">Python</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">framework</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">Versions</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="number">2.3</span></code>. However,
the installation does not interfere with the Python version that ships with
10.2.8.
</p>
<p>
It is also crucial to increase the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">stacksize</span></code>
before starting compilations, e.g.:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">limit</span> <span class="identifier">stacksize</span> <span class="number">8192</span><span class="identifier">k</span></pre>
<p>
If the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">stacksize</span></code> is too small
the build might crash with internal compiler errors.
</p>
<p>
Sometimes Apple's compiler exhibits a bug by printing an error like the following
while compiling a <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">class_</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">your_type</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
template instantiation:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="special">.../</span><span class="identifier">inheritance</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span><span class="special">:</span><span class="number">44</span><span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">error</span><span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">cannot</span>
<span class="keyword">dynamic_cast</span> <span class="error">`</span><span class="identifier">p</span><span class="char">' (of type `struct cctbx::boost_python::&lt;unnamed&gt;::add_pair*
'</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="identifier">to</span> <span class="identifier">type</span> <span class="error">`</span><span class="keyword">void</span><span class="special">*</span><span class="error">'</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">source</span> <span class="identifier">type</span> <span class="identifier">is</span> <span class="keyword">not</span> <span class="identifier">polymorphic</span><span class="special">)</span>
</pre>
<p>
We do not know a general workaround, but if the definition of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">your_type</span></code> can be modified the following
was found to work in all cases encountered so far:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">struct</span> <span class="identifier">your_type</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="comment">// before defining any member data</span>
<span class="preprocessor">#if</span> <span class="identifier">defined</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">__MACH__</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">amp</span><span class="special">;&amp;</span><span class="identifier">amp</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="identifier">defined</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">__APPLE_CC__</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">amp</span><span class="special">;&amp;</span><span class="identifier">amp</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="identifier">__APPLE_CC__</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="number">1493</span>
<span class="keyword">bool</span> <span class="identifier">dummy_</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="preprocessor">#endif</span>
<span class="comment">// now your member data, e.g.</span>
<span class="keyword">double</span> <span class="identifier">x</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">j</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="comment">// etc.</span>
<span class="special">};</span>
</pre>
</div>
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<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
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<a name="faq.error_c2064_term_does_not_evalua"></a><a class="link" href="error_c2064_term_does_not_evalua.html" title="error C2064: term does not evaluate to a function taking 2 arguments">error C2064: term
does not evaluate to a function taking 2 arguments</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
<span class="emphasis"><em>Niall Douglas provides these notes:</em></span>
</p>
<p>
If you see Microsoft Visual C++ 7.1 (MS Visual Studio .NET 2003) issue an
error message like the following it is most likely due to a bug in the compiler:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">\</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">\</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">\</span><span class="identifier">detail</span><span class="special">\</span><span class="identifier">invoke</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">76</span><span class="special">):</span>
<span class="identifier">error</span> <span class="identifier">C2064</span><span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">term</span> <span class="identifier">does</span> <span class="keyword">not</span> <span class="identifier">evaluate</span> <span class="identifier">to</span> <span class="identifier">a</span> <span class="identifier">function</span> <span class="identifier">taking</span> <span class="number">2</span> <span class="identifier">arguments</span><span class="error">"</span>
</pre>
<p>
This message is triggered by code like the following:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="preprocessor">#include</span> <span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
<span class="keyword">using</span> <span class="keyword">namespace</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">FXThread</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">public</span><span class="special">:</span>
<span class="keyword">bool</span> <span class="identifier">setAutoDelete</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">bool</span> <span class="identifier">doso</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="keyword">throw</span><span class="special">();</span>
<span class="special">};</span>
<span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">Export_FXThread</span><span class="special">()</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="identifier">class_</span><span class="special">&lt;</span> <span class="identifier">FXThread</span> <span class="special">&gt;(</span><span class="string">"FXThread"</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">def</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"setAutoDelete"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">amp</span><span class="special">;</span><span class="identifier">FXThread</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">setAutoDelete</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
The bug is related to the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">throw</span><span class="special">()</span></code> modifier. As a workaround cast off the
modifier. E.g.:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">def</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"setAutoDelete"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">bool</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">FXThread</span><span class="special">::*)(</span><span class="keyword">bool</span><span class="special">))</span> <span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">FXThread</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">setAutoDelete</span><span class="special">)</span>
</pre>
<p>
(The bug has been reported to Microsoft.)
</p>
</div>
<table xmlns:rev="http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~gregod/boost/tools/doc/revision" width="100%"><tr>
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<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
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<a name="faq.fatal_error_c1204_compiler_limit"></a><a class="link" href="fatal_error_c1204_compiler_limit.html" title="fatal error C1204:Compiler limit:internal structure overflow">fatal error C1204:Compiler
limit:internal structure overflow</a>
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<p>
<span class="bold"><strong>Q:</strong></span> <span class="emphasis"><em>I get this error message when
compiling a large source file. What can I do?</em></span>
</p>
<p>
<span class="bold"><strong>A:</strong></span> You have two choices:
</p>
<div class="orderedlist"><ol class="orderedlist" type="1">
<li class="listitem">
Upgrade your compiler (preferred)
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<p class="simpara">
Break your source file up into multiple translation units.
</p>
<p class="simpara">
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">my_module</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">cpp</span></code>:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="special">...</span>
<span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">more_of_my_module</span><span class="special">();</span>
<span class="identifier">BOOST_PYTHON_MODULE</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">my_module</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="identifier">def</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"foo"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">foo</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="identifier">def</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"bar"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">bar</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="special">...</span>
<span class="identifier">more_of_my_module</span><span class="special">();</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p class="simpara">
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">more_of_my_module</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">cpp</span></code>:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">more_of_my_module</span><span class="special">()</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="identifier">def</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"baz"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">baz</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="special">...</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p class="simpara">
If you find that a <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">class_</span><span class="special">&lt;...&gt;</span></code> declaration can't fit in a
single source file without triggering the error, you can always pass
a reference to the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">class_</span></code>
object to a function in another source file, and call some of its member
functions (e.g. <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">def</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code>) in the auxilliary source file:
</p>
<p class="simpara">
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">more_of_my_class</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">cpp</span></code>:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">more_of_my_class</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">class</span><span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">lt</span><span class="special">;</span><span class="identifier">my_class</span><span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">gt</span><span class="special">;&amp;</span><span class="identifier">amp</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="identifier">x</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="identifier">x</span>
<span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">def</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"baz"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">baz</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">add_property</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"xx"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">my_class</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">get_xx</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">my_class</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">set_xx</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">...</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
</li>
</ol></div>
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<td align="left"></td>
<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
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<a name="faq.how_can_i_automatically_convert_"></a><a class="link" href="how_can_i_automatically_convert_.html" title="How can I automatically convert my custom string type to and from a Python string?">How can I automatically
convert my custom string type to and from a Python string?</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
<span class="emphasis"><em>Ralf W. Grosse-Kunstleve provides these notes:</em></span>
</p>
<p>
Below is a small, self-contained demo extension module that shows how to
do this. Here is the corresponding trivial test:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">import</span> <span class="identifier">custom_string</span>
<span class="identifier">assert</span> <span class="identifier">custom_string</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hello</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="string">"Hello world."</span>
<span class="identifier">assert</span> <span class="identifier">custom_string</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">size</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"california"</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="number">10</span>
</pre>
<p>
If you look at the code you will find:
</p>
<div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" style="list-style-type: disc; ">
<li class="listitem">
A custom <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">to_python</span></code> converter
(easy): <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">custom_string_to_python_str</span></code>
</li>
<li class="listitem">
A custom lvalue converter (needs more code): <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">custom_string_from_python_str</span></code>
</li>
</ul></div>
<p>
The custom converters are registered in the global Boost.Python registry
near the top of the module initialization function. Once flow control has
passed through the registration code the automatic conversions from and to
Python strings will work in any module imported in the same process.
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="preprocessor">#include</span> <span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">module</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
<span class="preprocessor">#include</span> <span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">def</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
<span class="preprocessor">#include</span> <span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">to_python_converter</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
<span class="keyword">namespace</span> <span class="identifier">sandbox</span> <span class="special">{</span> <span class="keyword">namespace</span> <span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">custom_string</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">public</span><span class="special">:</span>
<span class="identifier">custom_string</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">{}</span>
<span class="identifier">custom_string</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span> <span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">value_</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{}</span>
<span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span> <span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="special">{</span> <span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="identifier">value_</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="special">}</span>
<span class="keyword">private</span><span class="special">:</span>
<span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span> <span class="identifier">value_</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">};</span>
<span class="keyword">struct</span> <span class="identifier">custom_string_to_python_str</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">static</span> <span class="identifier">PyObject</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">convert</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">custom_string</span> <span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">incref</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">object</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">()).</span><span class="identifier">ptr</span><span class="special">());</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
<span class="special">};</span>
<span class="keyword">struct</span> <span class="identifier">custom_string_from_python_str</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="identifier">custom_string_from_python_str</span><span class="special">()</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">converter</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">registry</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">push_back</span><span class="special">(</span>
<span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">convertible</span><span class="special">,</span>
<span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">construct</span><span class="special">,</span>
<span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">type_id</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">custom_string</span><span class="special">&gt;());</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
<span class="keyword">static</span> <span class="keyword">void</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">convertible</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">PyObject</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">obj_ptr</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">if</span> <span class="special">(!</span><span class="identifier">PyString_Check</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">obj_ptr</span><span class="special">))</span> <span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="identifier">obj_ptr</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
<span class="keyword">static</span> <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">construct</span><span class="special">(</span>
<span class="identifier">PyObject</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">obj_ptr</span><span class="special">,</span>
<span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">converter</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">rvalue_from_python_stage1_data</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">data</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="keyword">char</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">value</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">PyString_AsString</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">obj_ptr</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="keyword">if</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">value</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">throw_error_already_set</span><span class="special">();</span>
<span class="keyword">void</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">storage</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="special">(</span>
<span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">converter</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">rvalue_from_python_storage</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">custom_string</span><span class="special">&gt;*)</span>
<span class="identifier">data</span><span class="special">)-&gt;</span><span class="identifier">storage</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">bytes</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="keyword">new</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">storage</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="identifier">custom_string</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="identifier">data</span><span class="special">-&gt;</span><span class="identifier">convertible</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">storage</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
<span class="special">};</span>
<span class="identifier">custom_string</span> <span class="identifier">hello</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">{</span> <span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="identifier">custom_string</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"Hello world."</span><span class="special">);</span> <span class="special">}</span>
<span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">size_t</span> <span class="identifier">size</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">custom_string</span> <span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span> <span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">().</span><span class="identifier">size</span><span class="special">();</span> <span class="special">}</span>
<span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">init_module</span><span class="special">()</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">using</span> <span class="keyword">namespace</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">to_python_converter</span><span class="special">&lt;</span>
<span class="identifier">custom_string</span><span class="special">,</span>
<span class="identifier">custom_string_to_python_str</span><span class="special">&gt;();</span>
<span class="identifier">custom_string_from_python_str</span><span class="special">();</span>
<span class="identifier">def</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"hello"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">hello</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="identifier">def</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"size"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">size</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
<span class="special">}}</span> <span class="comment">// namespace sandbox::&lt;anonymous&gt;</span>
<span class="identifier">BOOST_PYTHON_MODULE</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">custom_string</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="identifier">sandbox</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">init_module</span><span class="special">();</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
</div>
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<td align="left"></td>
<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
</p>
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<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="faq.how_can_i_find_the_existing_pyob"></a><a class="link" href="how_can_i_find_the_existing_pyob.html" title="How can I find the existing PyObject that holds a C++ object?">How can I find
the existing PyObject that holds a C++ object?</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<div class="blockquote"><blockquote class="blockquote"><p>
"I am wrapping a function that always returns a pointer to an already-held
C++ object."
</p></blockquote></div>
<p>
One way to do that is to hijack the mechanisms used for wrapping a class
with virtual functions. If you make a wrapper class with an initial PyObject*
constructor argument and store that PyObject* as "self", you can
get back to it by casting down to that wrapper type in a thin wrapper function.
For example:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">X</span> <span class="special">{</span> <span class="identifier">X</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">);</span> <span class="keyword">virtual</span> <span class="special">~</span><span class="identifier">X</span><span class="special">();</span> <span class="special">...</span> <span class="special">};</span>
<span class="identifier">X</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">f</span><span class="special">();</span> <span class="comment">// known to return Xs that are managed by Python objects</span>
<span class="comment">// wrapping code</span>
<span class="keyword">struct</span> <span class="identifier">X_wrap</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">X</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="identifier">X_wrap</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">PyObject</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">self</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">self</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">self</span><span class="special">),</span> <span class="identifier">X</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{}</span>
<span class="identifier">PyObject</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">self</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">};</span>
<span class="identifier">handle</span><span class="special">&lt;&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">f_wrap</span><span class="special">()</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="identifier">X_wrap</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">xw</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="keyword">dynamic_cast</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">X_wrap</span><span class="special">*&gt;(</span><span class="identifier">f</span><span class="special">());</span>
<span class="identifier">assert</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">xw</span> <span class="special">!=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="identifier">handle</span><span class="special">&lt;&gt;(</span><span class="identifier">borrowed</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">xw</span><span class="special">-&gt;</span><span class="identifier">self</span><span class="special">));</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
<span class="special">...</span>
<span class="identifier">def</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"f"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">f_wrap</span><span class="special">());</span>
<span class="identifier">class_</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">X</span><span class="special">,</span><span class="identifier">X_wrap</span><span class="special">,</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">noncopyable</span><span class="special">&gt;(</span><span class="string">"X"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">init</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;())</span>
<span class="special">...</span>
<span class="special">;</span>
</pre>
<p>
Of course, if X has no virtual functions you'll have to use <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">static_cast</span></code> instead of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">dynamic_cast</span></code>
with no runtime check that it's valid. This approach also only works if the
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">X</span></code> object was constructed
from Python, because <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">X</span></code>s constructed
from C++ are of course never <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">X_wrap</span></code>
objects.
</p>
<p>
Another approach to this requires you to change your C++ code a bit; if that's
an option for you it might be a better way to go. work we've been meaning
to get to anyway. When a <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">shared_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">X</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
is converted from Python, the shared_ptr actually manages a reference to
the containing Python object. When a shared_ptr&lt;X&gt; is converted back
to Python, the library checks to see if it's one of those "Python object
managers" and if so just returns the original Python object. So you
could just write <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">object</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">p</span><span class="special">)</span></code> to get
the Python object back. To exploit this you'd have to be able to change the
C++ code you're wrapping so that it deals with shared_ptr instead of raw
pointers.
</p>
<p>
There are other approaches too. The functions that receive the Python object
that you eventually want to return could be wrapped with a thin wrapper that
records the correspondence between the object address and its containing
Python object, and you could have your f_wrap function look in that mapping
to get the Python object out.
</p>
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<a name="faq.how_can_i_wrap_a_function_which0"></a><a class="link" href="how_can_i_wrap_a_function_which0.html" title="How can I wrap a function which needs to take ownership of a raw pointer?">How can I wrap
a function which needs to take ownership of a raw pointer?</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
<span class="bold"><strong>Q:</strong></span> Part of an API that I'm wrapping goes
something like this:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">struct</span> <span class="identifier">A</span> <span class="special">{};</span> <span class="keyword">struct</span> <span class="identifier">B</span> <span class="special">{</span> <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">add</span><span class="special">(</span> <span class="identifier">A</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="special">);</span> <span class="special">}</span>
<span class="identifier">where</span> <span class="identifier">B</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">add</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="identifier">takes</span> <span class="identifier">ownership</span> <span class="identifier">of</span> <span class="identifier">the</span> <span class="identifier">pointer</span> <span class="identifier">passed</span> <span class="identifier">to</span> <span class="identifier">it</span><span class="special">.</span>
</pre>
<p>
However:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">a</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">mod</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">A</span><span class="special">()</span>
<span class="identifier">b</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">mod</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">B</span><span class="special">()</span>
<span class="identifier">b</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">add</span><span class="special">(</span> <span class="identifier">a</span> <span class="special">)</span>
<span class="identifier">del</span> <span class="identifier">a</span>
<span class="identifier">del</span> <span class="identifier">b</span>
<span class="preprocessor"># python</span> <span class="identifier">interpreter</span> <span class="identifier">crashes</span>
<span class="preprocessor"># later</span> <span class="identifier">due</span> <span class="identifier">to</span> <span class="identifier">memory</span> <span class="identifier">corruption</span><span class="special">.</span>
</pre>
<p>
Even binding the lifetime of a to b via <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">with_custodian_and_ward</span></code>
doesn't prevent the python object a from ultimately trying to delete the
object it's pointing to. Is there a way to accomplish a 'transfer-of-ownership'
of a wrapped C++ object?
</p>
<p>
--Bruce Lowery
</p>
<p>
Yes: Make sure the C++ object is held by auto_ptr:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">class_</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">A</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">auto_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">A</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="special">&gt;(</span><span class="string">"A"</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">...</span>
<span class="special">;</span>
</pre>
<p>
Then make a thin wrapper function which takes an auto_ptr parameter:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">b_insert</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">B</span> <span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">b</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">auto_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">A</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">a</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="identifier">b</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">insert</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">a</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">());</span>
<span class="identifier">a</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">release</span><span class="special">();</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
Wrap that as B.add. Note that pointers returned via <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">manage_new_object</span></code>
will also be held by <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">auto_ptr</span></code>,
so this transfer-of-ownership will also work correctly.
</p>
</div>
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Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
</p>
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<a name="faq.how_can_i_wrap_functions_which_t"></a><a class="link" href="how_can_i_wrap_functions_which_t.html" title="How can I wrap functions which take C++ containers as arguments?">How can I wrap
functions which take C++ containers as arguments?</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
Ralf W. Grosse-Kunstleve provides these notes:
</p>
<div class="orderedlist"><ol class="orderedlist" type="1">
<li class="listitem">
<p class="simpara">
Using the regular <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">class_</span><span class="special">&lt;&gt;</span></code> wrapper:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">class_</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">vector</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">double</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="special">&gt;(</span><span class="string">"std_vector_double"</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">def</span><span class="special">(...)</span>
<span class="special">...</span>
<span class="special">;</span>
</pre>
<p class="simpara">
This can be moved to a template so that several types (<code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">double</span></code>, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">int</span></code>,
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">long</span></code>, etc.) can be wrapped
with the same code. This technique is used in the file <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">scitbx</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">include</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">scitbx</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">array_family</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">boost_python</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">flex_wrapper</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">h</span></code> in the "scitbx" package.
The file could easily be modified for wrapping <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">vector</span><span class="special">&lt;&gt;</span></code> instantiations. This type of
C++/Python binding is most suitable for containers that may contain a
large number of elements (&gt;10000).
</p>
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<p class="simpara">
Using custom rvalue converters. Boost.Python "rvalue converters"
match function signatures such as:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">foo</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">vector</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">double</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">array</span><span class="special">);</span> <span class="comment">// pass by const-reference</span>
<span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">foo</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">vector</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">double</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">array</span><span class="special">);</span> <span class="comment">// pass by value</span>
</pre>
<p class="simpara">
Some custom rvalue converters are implemented in the file <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">scitbx</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">include</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">scitbx</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">boost_python</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">container_conversions</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">h</span></code> This code can be used to convert
from C++ container types such as <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">vector</span><span class="special">&lt;&gt;</span></code> or <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">list</span><span class="special">&lt;&gt;</span></code> to Python tuples and vice versa.
A few simple examples can be found in the file <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">scitbx</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">array_family</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">boost_python</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">regression_test_module</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">cpp</span></code>
Automatic C++ container &lt;-&gt; Python tuple conversions are most suitable
for containers of moderate size. These converters generate significantly
less object code compared to alternative 1 above.
</p>
</li>
</ol></div>
<p>
A disadvantage of using alternative 2 is that operators such as arithmetic
+,-,*,/,% are not available. It would be useful to have custom rvalue converters
that convert to a "math_array" type instead of tuples. This is
currently not implemented but is possible within the framework of Boost.Python
V2 as it will be released in the next couple of weeks. [ed.: this was posted
on 2002/03/10]
</p>
<p>
It would also be useful to also have "custom lvalue converters"
such as <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">vector</span><span class="special">&lt;&gt;</span></code>
&lt;-&gt; Python list. These converters would support the modification of
the Python list from C++. For example:
</p>
<p>
C++:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">foo</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">vector</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">double</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">array</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">for</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">size_t</span> <span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">=</span><span class="number">0</span><span class="special">;</span><span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">lt</span><span class="special">;</span><span class="identifier">array</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">size</span><span class="special">();</span><span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">++)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
<span class="identifier">array</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">]</span> <span class="special">*=</span> <span class="number">2</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
Python:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="special">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">l</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="special">[</span><span class="number">1</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">2</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">3</span><span class="special">]</span>
<span class="special">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">foo</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">l</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="keyword">print</span> <span class="identifier">l</span>
<span class="special">[</span><span class="number">2</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">4</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">6</span><span class="special">]</span>
</pre>
<p>
Custom lvalue converters require changes to the Boost.Python core library
and are currently not available.
</p>
<p>
P.S.:
</p>
<p>
The "scitbx" files referenced above are available via anonymous
CVS:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">cvs</span> <span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">d</span><span class="special">:</span><span class="identifier">pserver</span><span class="special">:</span><span class="identifier">anonymous</span><span class="error">@</span><span class="identifier">cvs</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">cctbx</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">sourceforge</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">net</span><span class="special">:/</span><span class="identifier">cvsroot</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">cctbx</span> <span class="identifier">login</span>
<span class="identifier">cvs</span> <span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">d</span><span class="special">:</span><span class="identifier">pserver</span><span class="special">:</span><span class="identifier">anonymous</span><span class="error">@</span><span class="identifier">cvs</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">cctbx</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">sourceforge</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">net</span><span class="special">:/</span><span class="identifier">cvsroot</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">cctbx</span> <span class="identifier">co</span> <span class="identifier">scitbx</span>
</pre>
</div>
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<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
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<a name="faq.how_do_i_create_sub_packages_usi"></a><a class="link" href="how_do_i_create_sub_packages_usi.html" title="How do I create sub-packages using Boost.Python?">How do I create
sub-packages using Boost.Python?</a>
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<p>
Please refer to the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Creating</span> <span class="identifier">Packages</span></code> section in the <a href="../tutorial/index.html" target="_top">Tutorial</a>.
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Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
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<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="faq.how_do_i_debug_my_python_extensi"></a><a class="link" href="how_do_i_debug_my_python_extensi.html" title="How do I debug my Python extensions?">How do I debug
my Python extensions?</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
Greg Burley gives the following answer for Unix GCC users:
</p>
<div class="blockquote"><blockquote class="blockquote">
<p>
Once you have created a boost python extension for your c++ library or
class, you may need to debug the code. Afterall this is one of the reasons
for wrapping the library in python. An expected side-effect or benefit
of using BPL is that debugging should be isolated to the c++ library that
is under test, given that python code is minimal and boost::python either
works or it doesn't. (ie. While errors can occur when the wrapping method
is invalid, most errors are caught by the compiler ;-).
</p>
<p>
The basic steps required to initiate a gdb session to debug a c++ library
via python are shown here. Note, however that you should start the gdb
session in the directory that contains your BPL my_ext.so module.
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">gdb</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="identifier">target</span> <span class="identifier">exec</span> <span class="identifier">python</span>
<span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">gdb</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="identifier">run</span>
<span class="special">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">from</span> <span class="identifier">my_ext</span> <span class="identifier">import</span> <span class="special">*</span>
<span class="special">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">C</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">c</span><span class="special">]</span>
<span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">gdb</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="keyword">break</span> <span class="identifier">MyClass</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">MyBuggyFunction</span>
<span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">gdb</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="identifier">cont</span>
<span class="special">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">pyobj</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">MyClass</span><span class="special">()</span>
<span class="special">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">pyobj</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">MyBuggyFunction</span><span class="special">()</span>
<span class="identifier">Breakpoint</span> <span class="number">1</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">MyClass</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">MyBuggyFunction</span> <span class="special">...</span>
<span class="identifier">Current</span> <span class="identifier">language</span><span class="special">:</span> <span class="keyword">auto</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="identifier">currently</span> <span class="identifier">c</span><span class="special">++</span>
<span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">gdb</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="keyword">do</span> <span class="identifier">debugging</span> <span class="identifier">stuff</span>
</pre>
</blockquote></div>
<p>
Greg's approach works even better using Emacs' "gdb" command, since
it will show you each line of source as you step through it.
</p>
<p>
On <span class="bold"><strong>Windows</strong></span>, my favorite debugging solution
is the debugger that comes with Microsoft Visual C++ 7. This debugger seems
to work with code generated by all versions of Microsoft and Metrowerks toolsets;
it's rock solid and "just works" without requiring any special
tricks from the user.
</p>
<p>
Raoul Gough has provided the following for gdb on Windows:
</p>
<div class="blockquote"><blockquote class="blockquote">
<p>
gdb support for Windows DLLs has improved lately, so it is now possible
to debug Python extensions using a few tricks. Firstly, you will need an
up-to-date gdb with support for minimal symbol extraction from a DLL. Any
gdb from version 6 onwards, or Cygwin gdb-20030214-1 and onwards should
do. A suitable release will have a section in the gdb.info file under Configuration
- Native - Cygwin Native - Non-debug DLL symbols. Refer to that info section
for more details of the procedures outlined here.
</p>
<p>
Secondly, it seems necessary to set a breakpoint in the Python interpreter,
rather than using ^C to break execution. A good place to set this breakpoint
is PyOS_Readline, which will stop execution immediately before reading
each interactive Python command. You have to let Python start once under
the debugger, so that it loads its own DLL, before you can set the breakpoint:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="error">$</span> <span class="identifier">gdb</span> <span class="identifier">python</span>
<span class="identifier">GNU</span> <span class="identifier">gdb</span> <span class="number">2003</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="number">09</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="number">02</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">cvs</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">cygwin</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">special</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">[...]</span>
<span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">gdb</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="identifier">run</span>
<span class="identifier">Starting</span> <span class="identifier">program</span><span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">cygdrive</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">c</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">Python22</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">exe</span>
<span class="identifier">Python</span> <span class="number">2.2</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="number">2</span> <span class="special">(#</span><span class="number">37</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">Oct</span> <span class="number">14</span> <span class="number">2002</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">17</span><span class="special">:</span><span class="number">02</span><span class="special">:</span><span class="number">34</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">MSC</span> <span class="number">32</span> <span class="identifier">bit</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">Intel</span><span class="special">)]</span> <span class="identifier">on</span> <span class="identifier">win32</span>
<span class="identifier">Type</span> <span class="string">"help"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="string">"copyright"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="string">"credits"</span> <span class="keyword">or</span> <span class="string">"license"</span> <span class="keyword">for</span> <span class="identifier">more</span> <span class="identifier">information</span><span class="special">.</span>
<span class="special">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="special">^</span><span class="identifier">Z</span>
<span class="identifier">Program</span> <span class="identifier">exited</span> <span class="identifier">normally</span><span class="special">.</span>
<span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">gdb</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="keyword">break</span> <span class="special">*&amp;</span><span class="identifier">PyOS_Readline</span>
<span class="identifier">Breakpoint</span> <span class="number">1</span> <span class="identifier">at</span> <span class="number">0x1e04eff0</span>
<span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">gdb</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="identifier">run</span>
<span class="identifier">Starting</span> <span class="identifier">program</span><span class="special">:</span> <span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">cygdrive</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">c</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">Python22</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">exe</span>
<span class="identifier">Python</span> <span class="number">2.2</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="number">2</span> <span class="special">(#</span><span class="number">37</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">Oct</span> <span class="number">14</span> <span class="number">2002</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">17</span><span class="special">:</span><span class="number">02</span><span class="special">:</span><span class="number">34</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">MSC</span> <span class="number">32</span> <span class="identifier">bit</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">Intel</span><span class="special">)]</span> <span class="identifier">on</span> <span class="identifier">win32</span>
<span class="identifier">Type</span> <span class="string">"help"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="string">"copyright"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="string">"credits"</span> <span class="keyword">or</span> <span class="string">"license"</span> <span class="keyword">for</span> <span class="identifier">more</span> <span class="identifier">information</span><span class="special">.</span>
<span class="identifier">Breakpoint</span> <span class="number">1</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">0x1e04eff0</span> <span class="identifier">in</span> <span class="identifier">python22</span><span class="special">!</span><span class="identifier">PyOS_Readline</span> <span class="special">()</span>
<span class="identifier">from</span> <span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">cygdrive</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">c</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">WINNT</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">system32</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">python22</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">dll</span>
<span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">gdb</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="identifier">cont</span>
<span class="identifier">Continuing</span><span class="special">.</span>
<span class="special">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">from</span> <span class="identifier">my_ext</span> <span class="identifier">import</span> <span class="special">*</span>
<span class="identifier">Breakpoint</span> <span class="number">1</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">0x1e04eff0</span> <span class="identifier">in</span> <span class="identifier">python22</span><span class="special">!</span><span class="identifier">PyOS_Readline</span> <span class="special">()</span>
<span class="identifier">from</span> <span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">cygdrive</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">c</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">WINNT</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">system32</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">python22</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">dll</span>
<span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">gdb</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">#</span> <span class="identifier">my_ext</span> <span class="identifier">now</span> <span class="identifier">loaded</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">with</span> <span class="identifier">any</span> <span class="identifier">debugging</span> <span class="identifier">symbols</span> <span class="identifier">it</span> <span class="identifier">contains</span><span class="special">)</span>
</pre>
</blockquote></div>
<h3>
<a name="faq.how_do_i_debug_my_python_extensi.h0"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="faq.how_do_i_debug_my_python_extensi.debugging_extensions_through_boo"></a></span><a class="link" href="how_do_i_debug_my_python_extensi.html#faq.how_do_i_debug_my_python_extensi.debugging_extensions_through_boo">Debugging
extensions through Boost.Build</a>
</h3>
<p>
If you are launching your extension module tests with <a href="http://www.boost.org/build" target="_top">Boost.Build</a>
using the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">runtest</span></code> rule, you can ask it to launch
your debugger for you by adding "--debugger=<span class="emphasis"><em>debugger</em></span>"
to your bjam command-line:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">bjam</span> <span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">sTOOLS</span><span class="special">=</span><span class="identifier">vc7</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="number">1</span> <span class="string">"--debugger=devenv /debugexe"</span> <span class="identifier">test</span>
<span class="identifier">bjam</span> <span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">sTOOLS</span><span class="special">=</span><span class="identifier">gcc</span> <span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">sPYTHON_LAUNCH</span><span class="special">=</span><span class="identifier">gdb</span> <span class="identifier">test</span>
</pre>
<p>
It can also be extremely useful to add the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">d</span><span class="special">+</span><span class="number">2</span></code>
option when you run your test, because Boost.Build will then show you the
exact commands it uses to invoke it. This will invariably involve setting
up PYTHONPATH and other important environment variables such as LD_LIBRARY_PATH
which may be needed by your debugger in order to get things to work right.
</p>
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<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
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<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="faq.i_m_getting_the_attempt_to_retur"></a><a class="link" href="i_m_getting_the_attempt_to_retur.html" title="I'm getting the &quot;attempt to return dangling reference&quot; error. What am I doing wrong?">I'm getting the
"attempt to return dangling reference" error. What am I doing wrong?</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
That exception is protecting you from causing a nasty crash. It usually happens
in response to some code like this:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">period</span> <span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">get_floating_frequency</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="keyword">const</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">call_method</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">period</span> <span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="special">&amp;&gt;(</span>
<span class="identifier">m_self</span><span class="special">,</span><span class="string">"get_floating_frequency"</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
And you get:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">ReferenceError</span><span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">Attempt</span> <span class="identifier">to</span> <span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="identifier">dangling</span> <span class="identifier">reference</span> <span class="identifier">to</span> <span class="identifier">object</span> <span class="identifier">of</span> <span class="identifier">type</span><span class="special">:</span>
<span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">period</span>
</pre>
<p>
In this case, the Python method invoked by <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">call_method</span></code>
constructs a new Python object. You're trying to return a reference to a
C++ object (an instance of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">period</span></code>) contained within and owned by that
Python object. Because the called method handed back a brand new object,
the only reference to it is held for the duration of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">get_floating_frequency</span><span class="special">()</span></code> above. When the function returns, the Python
object will be destroyed, destroying the instance of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">class</span>
<span class="identifier">period</span></code>, and leaving the returned
reference dangling. That's already undefined behavior, and if you try to
do anything with that reference you're likely to cause a crash. Boost.Python
detects this situation at runtime and helpfully throws an exception instead
of letting you do that.
</p>
</div>
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<td align="left"></td>
<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
</p>
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<a name="faq.is_boost_python_thread_aware_com"></a><a class="link" href="is_boost_python_thread_aware_com.html" title="Is Boost.Python thread-aware/compatible with multiple interpreters?">Is Boost.Python
thread-aware/compatible with multiple interpreters?</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
<span class="emphasis"><em>Niall Douglas provides these notes:</em></span>
</p>
<p>
The quick answer to this is: no.
</p>
<p>
The longer answer is that it can be patched to be so, but it's complex. You
will need to add custom lock/unlock wrapping of every time your code enters
Boost.Python (particularly every virtual function override) plus heavily
modify <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">detail</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">invoke</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span></code> with custom unlock/lock wrapping of
every time Boost.Python enters your code. You must furthermore take care
to <span class="emphasis"><em>not</em></span> unlock/lock when Boost.Python is invoking iterator
changes via <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">invoke</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span></code>.
</p>
<p>
There is a patched <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">invoke</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span></code> posted
on the C++-SIG mailing list archives and you can find a real implementation
of all the machinery necessary to fully implement this in the TnFOX project
at <a href="http://sourceforge.net/projects/tnfox/" target="_top">this</a> SourceForge
project location.
</p>
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<a name="faq.is_return_internal_reference_eff"></a><a class="link" href="is_return_internal_reference_eff.html" title="Is return_internal_reference efficient?">Is <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">return_internal_reference</span></code> efficient?</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
<span class="bold"><strong>Q:</strong></span> /I have an object composed of 12 doubles.
A <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;</span></code>
to this object is returned by a member function of another class. From the
viewpoint of using the returned object in Python I do not care if I get a
copy or a reference to the returned object. In Boost.Python I have the choice
of using <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">copy_const_reference</span></code>
or <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">return_internal_reference</span></code>.
Are there considerations that would lead me to prefer one over the other,
such as size of generated code or memory overhead?/
</p>
<p>
<span class="bold"><strong>A:</strong></span> <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">copy_const_reference</span></code>
will make an instance with storage for one of your objects, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">size</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">base_size</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="number">12</span> <span class="special">*</span> <span class="keyword">sizeof</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">double</span><span class="special">)</span></code>.
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">return_internal_reference</span></code>
will make an instance with storage for a pointer to one of your objects,
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">size</span> <span class="special">=</span>
<span class="identifier">base_size</span> <span class="special">+</span>
<span class="keyword">sizeof</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">void</span><span class="special">*)</span></code>. However,
it will also create a weak reference object which goes in the source object's
weakreflist and a special callback object to manage the lifetime of the internally-referenced
object. My guess? <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">copy_const_reference</span></code>
is your friend here, resulting in less overall memory use and less fragmentation,
also probably fewer total cycles.
</p>
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Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
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<a name="faq.why_doesn_t_my_operator_work"></a><a class="link" href="why_doesn_t_my_operator_work.html" title="Why doesn't my *= operator work?">Why doesn't my <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">*=</span></code> operator work?</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
<span class="bold"><strong>Q:</strong></span> <span class="emphasis"><em>I have exported my class to
python, with many overloaded operators. it works fine for me except the
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">*=</span></code> operator. It always tells
me "can't multiply sequence with non int type". If I use <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">p1</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">__imul__</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">p2</span><span class="special">)</span></code>
instead of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">p1</span> <span class="special">*=</span>
<span class="identifier">p2</span></code>, it successfully executes my
code. What's wrong with me?</em></span>
</p>
<p>
<span class="bold"><strong>A:</strong></span> There's nothing wrong with you. This
is a bug in Python 2.2. You can see the same effect in Pure Python (you can
learn a lot about what's happening in Boost.Python by playing with new-style
classes in Pure Python).
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="special">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">X</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">object</span><span class="special">):</span>
<span class="special">...</span> <span class="identifier">def</span> <span class="identifier">__imul__</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">self</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">x</span><span class="special">):</span>
<span class="special">...</span> <span class="identifier">print</span> <span class="char">'imul'</span>
<span class="special">...</span>
<span class="special">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">x</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">X</span><span class="special">()</span>
<span class="special">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">x</span> <span class="special">*=</span> <span class="number">1</span>
</pre>
<p>
To cure this problem, all you need to do is upgrade your Python to version
2.2.1 or later.
</p>
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Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
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<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="faq.why_is_my_automatic_to_python_co"></a><a class="link" href="why_is_my_automatic_to_python_co.html" title="Why is my automatic to-python conversion not being found?">Why is my automatic
to-python conversion not being found?</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
<span class="emphasis"><em>Niall Douglas provides these notes:</em></span>
</p>
<p>
If you define custom converters similar to the ones shown above the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">def_readonly</span><span class="special">()</span></code>
and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">def_readwrite</span><span class="special">()</span></code>
member functions provided by <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">python</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">class_</span></code>
for direct access to your member data will not work as expected. This is
because <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">def_readonly</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"bar"</span><span class="special">,&amp;</span><span class="identifier">foo</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">bar</span><span class="special">)</span></code> is equivalent to:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">add_property</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"bar"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">make_getter</span><span class="special">(&amp;</span><span class="identifier">foo</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">bar</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">return_internal_reference</span><span class="special">()))</span>
</pre>
<p>
Similarly, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">def_readwrite</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"bar"</span><span class="special">,&amp;</span><span class="identifier">foo</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">bar</span><span class="special">)</span></code>
is equivalent to:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">add_property</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"bar"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">make_getter</span><span class="special">(&amp;</span><span class="identifier">foo</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">bar</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">return_internal_reference</span><span class="special">()),</span>
<span class="identifier">make_setter</span><span class="special">(&amp;</span><span class="identifier">foo</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">bar</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">return_internal_reference</span><span class="special">())</span>
</pre>
<p>
In order to define return value policies compatible with the custom conversions
replace <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">def_readonly</span><span class="special">()</span></code>
and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">def_readwrite</span><span class="special">()</span></code>
by <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">add_property</span><span class="special">()</span></code>.
E.g.:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">add_property</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"bar"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">make_getter</span><span class="special">(&amp;</span><span class="identifier">foo</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">bar</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">return_value_policy</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">return_by_value</span><span class="special">&gt;()),</span>
<span class="identifier">make_setter</span><span class="special">(&amp;</span><span class="identifier">foo</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">bar</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">return_value_policy</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">return_by_value</span><span class="special">&gt;()))</span>
</pre>
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<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
</p>
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<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h1 class="title">
<a name="glossary"></a>Chapter&#160;6.&#160;Glossary</h1></div></div></div>
<div class="variablelist">
<p class="title"><b></b></p>
<dl class="variablelist">
<dt><span class="term">arity <a name="arity"></a></span></dt>
<dd><p>
The number of argumnts accepted by a function or member function. Unless
otherwise specified, the hidden <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">this</span></code>
argument to member functions is not counted when specifying arity.
</p></dd>
<dt><span class="term">ntbs <a name="ntbs"></a></span></dt>
<dd><p>
Null-Terminated Byte String, or 'C'-string. C++ string literals are
<span class="bold"><strong>ntbs</strong></span>es. An <span class="bold"><strong>ntbs</strong></span>
must never be null.
</p></dd>
<dt><span class="term">raise <a name="raise"></a></span></dt>
<dd><p>
Exceptions in Python are "raised", not "thrown",
as they are in C++. When this documentation says that some Python exception
is "raised" in the context of C++ code, it means that the corresponding
Python exception is set via the <a href="http://www.python.org/doc/current/api/exceptionHandling.html" target="_top">Python/'C'
API</a>, and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">throw_error_already_set</span><span class="special">()</span></code> is called.
</p></dd>
<dt><span class="term">POD <a name="pod"></a></span></dt>
<dd><p>
A technical term from the C++ standard. Short for "Plain Ol'Data":
A POD-struct is an aggregate class that has no non-static data members
of type pointer to member, non-POD-struct, non-POD-union (or array of
such types) or reference, and has no user-defined copy assign- ment operator
and no user-defined destructor. Similarly, a POD-union is an aggregate
union that has no non-static data members of type pointer to member,
non-POD-struct, non-POD-union (or array of such types) or reference,
and has no user-defined copy assignment operator and no user-defined
destructor. A POD class is a class that is either a POD-struct or a POD-union.
An aggregate is an array or a class (clause 9) with no user-declared
constructors (12.1), no private or protected non-static data members
(clause 11), no base classes (clause 10), and no virtual functions (10.3).
</p></dd>
<dt><span class="term">ODR <a name="odr"></a></span></dt>
<dd><p>
The "One Definition Rule", which says that any entity in a
C++ program must have the same definition in all translation units (object
files) which make up a program.
</p></dd>
</dl>
</div>
</div>
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<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2002-2015 David
Abrahams, Stefan Seefeld<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
</p>
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